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The Bronze Age - The detailed picture

The Bronze Age in the South West

Cremation and inhumation

The sites using solely cremation (26) and solely inhumation (6) are widely distributed, and the sites with mixed methods (3) are in south Cornwall and the south Cotswolds. The different types of disposal sites have very slightly different frequencies of use. The single disposal sites divide markedly between those using only cremation (14) and those using only inhumation (3), with only one site using both methods. The multiple similar sites favour cremation less but have a similar clear division (6:3:0). The multiple varied disposal sites diverge a little from this pattern, with sites holding cremations at 6, followed by sites holding both cremations and inhumations at 2 and no inhumation only sites at all.

Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple similar disposal sites. At 5 instances on 9 sites, it is 5 times as frequent as occurrence on single disposal sites (twice on 18 sites), and one and a half times as frequent as on multiple varied sites (3:8). This is a slightly different pattern from that met before, when multiple varied disposals had more ritual activity.

[SW SD] The single disposals

[SW SD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 18 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows, individual cairns, cists, pits, and settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (1), mound (4), pit (11), cairn (4), cist (5), urn (13), bag (1), box (1) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3001].

For distribution, only the larger numbers in this analysis of container types are perhaps worth further examination. The largest group, comprising the 13 urn sites, is concentrated in Cornwall and Scilly with a handful scattered throughout the rest of the south west area to the north. Sites with pits (11) fall mostly in Cornwall, on Exmoor, and in South Glamorgan. Sites with cists (5) seem to occur widely in a thin scatter throughout the area, as do sites with cairns (4) and mounds (4).

The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is that for the single disposal there appears, as in the south west area for 2500-14/1300bc, to be no area with exclusive use of a major type, but Cornwall seems to have more occurrences of the more frequently used types.

[SW SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was apparently very dominant in single disposals, all of the 18 sites using it, and none using a multiple phase rite. There were two sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity and two others where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place:

The variety of ritual activity is very limited indeed, but the site numbers are low, so quantity is inevitably going to be limited. Many of the previous major active groups have disappeared or are reduced to one or two examples, but what does survive is recognisable as a tradition continued.

[SW SD] Disposal process

Of the 18 sites, 14 were cremation only sites, 3 inhumation only and one had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. There were no sites where there was a multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body before final deposition.

[SW SD] Tokenism

Token deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 1259 Riverside Cottage, and 1400 Ash Farm.

[SW SD] Mortuary and other internal structures

None were recorded.

[SW SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal

Of the 18 single disposal sites, well over half (14) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed mostly in Cornwall and Devon and encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking the major categories, 10 are in urns (compared with 13 for all single disposals), 9 in pits (11), 3 in cists (5) and 3 in cairns (4). It is again a point of interest that for these single unaccompanied burials the choice of container in these major categories is more or less in proportion to their numbers. They were all placed in simple monuments or settings, except for the apparent ritual hearth burial at 1196 Trethellan Farm. Two of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and one as female.

Both sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.

Turning to the four accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, representation is sparse: personal decor goods (1 instance), personal craft (1), excellence (2), token (1), animal part (1), domestic refuse (1), and an objet trouvée (1).

The one clearly identified male disposal was associated with 6 sheep bones, and a bronze knife. There were no identifiable female accompanied disposals.

[SW SD] Combinations of grave goods

The numbers of grave goods were so small that analysis of combinations is not particularly meaningful. The main features of note in this group are the very high number of disposals which were unaccompanied, and that where there were accompanying goods, the personal utensil was a rarity (whereas it has been the most frequent type in previous periods).

Only two of the ten sites in the whole south west area with evidence for ritual activity in this period contained single disposals, a relatively small proportion of sites in this group.

[SW SD] Elite burial rites?

There is perhaps one site where burial seems to have been more special in its features than the norm. At 1196 Trethellan Farm the extended inhumation of a young adult male under the hearth of Hut 2222 appears deliberate, and remains that might have been part of this burial were found in the hut floor spread, so that it is hard to imagine that the occupants were not aware of the deposit. Elsewhere there is no special feature to distinguish an elite rite.

[SW SD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south west area, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 236 Lower Ashmore Farm (1030bc), 1141 Roughground Farm (890bc), 1196 Trethellan Farm (range 1266-1031bc for 13/16 dates obtained), and 1384 Bratton Fleming 4 (882bc).

[SW] The multiple similar disposals

[SW MSD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 9 sites are distributed among the categories of urnfields (3), cists (1), settlements (1), pits (2), and round barrows (2). In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (1), mound (2), pit (5), cairn (1), chamber (1), cist (2), urn (4), urnfield (3) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3002]. The five pits are thinly scattered from Scilly to Gloucestershire, as are the four urn and three urnfield sites.

[SW MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south west area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was apparently dominant in multiple similar disposals, all of the sites using it. There were six sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, four on cremation sites, two on inhumation sites:

The variety of ritual activity is again slight from a very small number of sites but there are recognisable echoes of past practice.

[SW MSD] Disposal process

Of the nine sites, six were cremation only sites, three inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. There was one site where there was a possible multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body (1108 Cape Cornwall), but this may have been a special deposit given the parts disposed.

[SW MSD] Tokenism

Token deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur at 173 Ballowal Cairn, and 1108 Cape Cornwall.

[SW MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures

There was no evidence.

[SW MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal

Of the nine multiple similar disposal sites, four have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites have no particular concentration. They were all placed in simple monuments or settings.

There were approximately 100 individuals buried on these sites at a conservative estimate (two sites were cremation cemeteries of some size, one specifically numbering 70 deposits) but only two individual disposals were clearly identified as male, and none as female. Two of the five sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.

Turning to the five accompanied multiple similar disposal sites, and taking the grave good types individually, there was one instance of goods of excellence, one of domestic refuse (even then perhaps casually occurring with the human remains on the settlement site at 313 Brean Down), personal tools (bronze spear heads, not strictly speaking grave goods, see below), animal bones with three urn cremations and with another pair of urned cremations, and a personal utensil. There were no combinations of goods.

One male was accompanied by two bronze spear heads embedded in his body (the apparent cause of death), but no other accompanied disposal's sex was identified.

Three of the five sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group. The deposit of wheatear, toad and rabbit (?leveret) bones mixed in with the three urned cremations at 1103 Pedngwinian Point appears a particularly interesting deposit in its exclusive use of wild birds and animals, and perhaps the choice of fauna may conceal a particular significance.

[SW MSD] Elite burial rites?

This group has provided no evidence for any elite burial rite. Grave goods were minimal, and the disposal process and rites provide no particular discriminators. The evidence for human remains on the settlement site at 313 Brean Down is suggestive of a connection between settlement and disposal practices seen before at 1196 Trethellan Farm.

[SW MSD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south west area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 313 Brean Down (range 1470-650bc) and 366 West Littleton Down (977bc).

[SW] Multiple varied disposals

[SW MVD] Disposal container types and distributions

The eight sites are distributed among the categories of chambered cairns, round barrows, and settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (2), mound (7), pit (1), cairn (1), chamber (1), cist (4), platform or paving (1), urn (7), urnfield (2) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3009]. Of the more numerous types, the mounds are distributed from Scilly to the Cotswolds, the urns south from Somerset, and chambers are widely scattered.

[SW MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple varied disposals, seven of the eight sites containing disposals using it, and one using a multiple phase rite. There were three sites with evidence for ritual activity, all with single phase rite disposals, and once jointly with a multiple phase rite disposal.

The three sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur in Somerset. As in other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. Evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south west area includes:

The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is much wider than in the previous groups even with the single phase rite so dominant, and even on such small numbers. In general, therefore, it continues the tradition for this group from previous periods. However it seems to be focused on a few sites, notably the two at Cheddar. The one incidence of possible continuation of the multiple phase rite of excarnation and bone treatment (cleansing) into a cremation phase is interesting, and makes it possible that, although cremation was prevalent, it had become the closing phase to disposal of the body material, and an addition to rather than a replacement for pre-inhumation activity with the body. It is but one incidence and not unambiguously such.

[SW MVD] Disposal process

Of the eight sites, six were cremation only sites, and two inhumation and cremation. This was slightly different from the other two groups which had a few inhumation only sites each. Single phase rites occurred on seven of the eight sites in this group, and multiple phase rites once. At the multiple phase rite site there was evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment (298 Cheddar 2).

[SW MVD] Tokenism

A token deposit occurs at: 278 Charlcombe 9.

[SW MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures

No evidence exists.

[SW MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal

Of the eight multiple varied disposal sites, six contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although two of those six sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves just four sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposal sites occur in Cornwall (3) and Somerset. They encompass a variety of disposal container types, two mounds, a settlement and a cairn. The unaccompanied burials are found in monuments of both simple and complex type. Although at a conservative estimate some 50 individuals were buried on these sites, no person's sex was identified.

One of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contains unaccompanied disposals.

There were four sites with accompanied disposals, two of which also have unaccompanied disposals present. The grave goods included: personal decor (1 case), personal craft (1), token goods (1), animal part (1), domestic refuse (3), and personal utensil (1). One burial had personal decor items with domestic refuse, and another a tool with a personal utensil.

The one clearly identified accompanied male disposal was associated with unburnt animal bone, Hallstatt sherds, flint, ochreous matter and 200 crinoid segments, and the one identified female accompanied disposal was associated with abundant Hallstatt sherds. Both were on the same site at 298 Cheddar 2.

All three sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals, a high proportion but on low numbers.

[SW MVD] Elite burial rites?

There are again no particular signs of elite rite, although the two barrows at 298 Cheddar 2 and 300 Cheddar 3 provide richer evidence for ritual activity and process. The group indeed has a higher proportion (for its size) of such activity, which continues the parallels for this disposal type from previous periods.

[SW MVD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south west area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 225 Gwithian Site GM/X (1120bc).

[SW] Sites without disposals

There is one site with some features of interest in the south west area for this period, the settlement site at 1196 Trethellan Farm which also had a burial under the hearth in Hut 2222. It is notable for the complex activity which went on, possibly giving a rare insight into the ritual components of settlement life.

The site provides examples of several of the more frequent ritual activity events encountered before on burial sites, and also quoted as occurring on non-burial sites in other periods. There also appears to have been a focal structure not of ordinary domestic purpose, which echoes a few structures with similar character in previous periods, if the outward detail of form and structure is set aside.

The Bronze Age in the South

Cremation and inhumation

The sites using solely cremation (159) are very thickly clustered in the Stonehenge-Dorchester part of the Windmill Hill-Dorchester oval, and particularly so in the southern part of Dorset in the region west and east of Dorchester. There is also a very strong scatter of such sites further to the east in southern Hampshire (which is a new distribution feature), and to the north. Sites with solely inhumation (10) are thinly scattered in the Windmill Hill-Dorchester oval, but do not appear beyond. The sites with mixed methods (16) appear mainly in the area between Stonehenge and Dorchester and its surrounds. Perhaps this geographical limitation of inhumation sites indicates a local population with an element favouring a more conservative tradition.

The different types of disposal sites have very slightly different frequencies of use. The single disposal sites divide markedly between those using only cremation (72) and those using only inhumation (7), with no site using both methods. The multiple similar sites favour cremation less but have a similar clear division (60:2:3). The multiple varied disposal sites diverge from this pattern, with sites holding cremations at 27, followed by sites holding both cremations and inhumations at 13 and just one inhumation only site. This difference from the other types repeats that of the south west area.

Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal sites, which repeats the pattern of previous periods, but diverges from the south west area in this particular period. At 11 instances on 41 sites, it is one and a half times as frequent as on single disposal sites (10 times on 65 sites), and about twice as frequent as on multiple similar disposal sites (9:79). This is a slightly different pattern from that met before in the south west area, when multiple similar disposals had more ritual activity. However, it mirrors patterns of past periods for the type.

The single disposals

[S SD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 79 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows, cairns, pits, urnfields, and settlements. Round barrows are by far the most usual frequent container at 84% occurrence, and usually the single disposal in this case is a single secondary disposal belonging to this period. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (5), mound (66), pit (50), cairn (8), platform or paving (1), pyre (3), urn (66), mortuary house (2), stone arrangements (1), urnfield (1) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3001].

One of the two largest groups, comprising the 66 urn sites, falls into the area starting from the environs of Stonehenge southwards to Dorchester, with the heaviest concentration in the south, and spreading west of Dorchester and also east into south Hampshire. Sites with mounds (66) have the same distribution. Sites with pits (50) also have a similar distribution, but there is a more notable scattering of pit disposals to the south east in the Southampton Basin.

The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is that the weight of this type of disposal is moving southwards within the former Windmill Hill- Dorchester oval, with Stonehenge as the new northern point, towards the Dorchester region, then spreading in both directions along the south Dorset coast, with movement into south Hampshire. There are no particular districts where a container is exclusively used, although the more even distribution of pits in the south area results in a higher than average appearance of that form in south Hampshire.

[S SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in single disposals, 78 of the 79 sites using it, and two using a multiple phase rite. There were nine sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity and others suggesting that ritual activity of other kinds may have taken place there:

Compared with the south west area, the variety of ritual activity is much greater in this group, but there are four times the number of sites, and some increase in incidence might be expected. All the previous major ritual activities are represented. Nonetheless for single disposals, in comparison with the previous periods, the evidence for ritual activity is not as prevalent.

[S SD] Disposal process

Of the 79 sites, 72 were cremation only sites, 7 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all but one of the sites. There were three sites (one certain, two possible) where there was a multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body before final deposition: 627 Shrewton 3 (disarticulated unburnt human bones in a broken bucket urn), 1159 Rockley Down Enclosure (two bone parts in settlement debris), and 1697 The Angle Ditch (portion of human skeleton and skull in ditch silt).

[S SD] Tokenism

Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 678 Chaldon Herring 16, 734 Piddlehinton 1 (owing to some cremated bone lost being in the rite), and 1697 The Angle Ditch (portion of human skeleton and skull in ditch silt).

[S SD] Mortuary and other internal structures

There were no unambiguous indications of mortuary houses such as appeared in earlier periods, but some sites contained stake structures of apparent mortuary purpose. These were at: 469 Broad Chalke 1 (three stake-holes just west of the cremation with charcoal, pottery and animal bone), 678 Chaldon Herring 16 (round the central pit were the remains of three stake-holes of a rectangular structure, possibly a mortuary house), 709 Kingston Russell 3b (stake-hole), 839 Roundwood 1 (three post-holes suggested a pyre support), 1351 Barrow G Simon's Ground (four-post mortuary structure south of the burial), and 1675 Warmwell Quarry (partial post circle with associated pits on occupation site).

[S SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal

Of the 79 single disposal sites the great majority (68) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals reflect the main disposal and container usage distributions. Two of these were clearly identified as male, and two as female.

Seven sites of the nine with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.

Turning to the eleven accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, representation is sparse: personal craft (1), excellence (1), token (2), animal part (2), personal utensil (4) and an objet trouvée (1). The one clearly identified male disposal was associated with a shark's tooth amulet. The three accompanied burials clearly identified as female were associated with: bucket urn sherds and animal bone (1 case), sheep bone (1), and a double-headed incense cup and a miniature urn (1).

Only one disposal had combined grave goods, where an animal part was associated with domestic refuse (sherds). The main features of note in this group are (as in the south west area) the very high number of disposals which were unaccompanied. In a very sparse field, the personal utensil has reappeared as the most frequent accompaniment to a burial.

[S SD] Elite burial rites?

There continues to be less evidence in this period to detect elite treatment of individuals at burial. Grave goods are scant and there are no particularly complex monuments or settings. The ritual activity has some new unusual elements (such as those in the west ditch at 821 Hurn 3), but there is nothing to suggest an elite rite, and indeed the occurrence of such activity appears to have declined for single disposals.

The occupation site at 1675 Warmwell Quarry has some ritual elements reminiscent of 1196 Trethellan Farm, on both of which burials are recorded. A problem in gauging the unusualness of those occurrences is in not knowing the extent to which settlement sites in previous periods had always contained disposals (perhaps reserved or kept in a midden-like context within or annexed to the occupation zone, as some final deposition evidence has implied). The appearance of disposals on settlement sites (as a very broad generalisation) coincides with the growing appearance of settlements themselves in the visible record.

[S SD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 734 Piddlehinton 1 (1220bc), and 844 Southwick Hill (1059bc).

[S] The multiple similar disposals

[S MSD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 65 sites are distributed among the categories of urnfields, round barrows, oval barrows, cairns, pits, and settlements. Urnfields (separate, or as part of barrows or their environs), and barrows were the most numerous monuments. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (8), mound (43), pit (41), cairn (9), chamber (1), cist (1), platform or paving (3), pyre (2), urn (62), urnfield (28) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3002].

The most frequent container, the urn (62 sites have such a container), follows the general distribution of the disposal type, being more evenly distributed throughout the whole length of the previously identified Windmill Hill-Dorchester oval, but also showing a very strong spread to the east into south Hampshire and the Southampton basin, and a slight scatter to the north east towards Berkshire. The mound (43) occurs from Stonehenge southwestwards to Dorchester, with a scatter in south Hampshire. The pit (41) is different and occurs thinly and evenly through the whole Windmill Hill-Dorchester oval, with a wide and even if thin scatter in all Hampshire, thus populating the Southampton basin. The majority of the nine cairns (5) were in south Dorset, along the coast. Finally the 28 urnfields occurred in a wide and even spread though the south area, with a slight bias towards the eastern part, and a seeming small concentration at Hengistbury.

[S MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple similar disposals, all of the sites using it, just as in the south west area. Possibly one used the multiple phase rite. There were ten sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, nine on cremation sites, and one on a joint inhumation and cremation site, and several others with activity possibly of a ritual nature which have been included in the summary below:

The variety of ritual activity is wider than that of the single disposal group, and generally wider than this disposal type normally generates. All main types appear to be represented. There is sufficient surviving evidence to indicate that some practices were continuing from the previous period, and that possibly the multiple similar disposals were now receiving a little more attention than the single disposals. Many of the single disposals were added as secondary burials on existing sites, however, and more of the multiple similar disposals perhaps were being placed on new sites as primaries: this difference might be a factor, the new site and the primary deposit attracting more ritual activity. This is a speculation which perhaps should be investigated. The occurrence of domestic refuse spreads at urnfield sites seems to confirm the continuing importance of this medium for rite. The occurrence of fragmentary human remains in occupation debris at 1159 Rockley Down Enclosure, and the midden deposit containing skull fragments at 1703 Potterne (a site overlapping with the next period) lend further support.

[S MSD] Disposal process

Of the 65 sites, 60 were cremation only sites, two inhumation only and three had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. There was one site where there was a possible multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body: 1593 Corfe Castle 22 (human shin bone set over a cremation in a bucket urn). The sites at 1159 Rockley Down Enclosure and 1703 Potterne are other possible sites, where the deposit was less structured.

[S MSD] Tokenism

There continues to a be a difficulty in unambiguously identifying a true token deposit among the cremations. Only examples where the excavator states that the deposit was token or where the report implies very strongly indeed that the deposit was such are included. The record may therefore be understating the situation. Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 718 Long Crichel 14, 833 Pokesdown, 860 Dummer, 1532 Moordown (?), 1567 Barrow Pleck 3, 1593 Corfe Castle 22, and 1679 Woodsford 1a.

[S MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures

No mortuary houses of the type found in previous periods appear in this period in the south area. The other structures appear to be associated with pyre activity.

At 834 Plaitford Barrow the whole cairn was pierced to the top by a vertical central post-hole containing charred wood, possibly a grave marker burned down with the construction of the cairn. At 1343 Barrow B Simon's Ground there were the remains of a burnt rectangular four-stake structure at the barrow centre (0.75m x 1.5m, suggestive of the size of a pyre platform) and a large mass of charcoal nearby. There were other charcoal-lined pits on the adjacent urnfield site possibly part of the urnfield structure or the remains of pyre supports. At 1345 Barrow C Simon's Ground, three stake- holes surrounded a central clay floor and in the urnfield there were charcoal-lined pits, as at the last site. At 1656 West Overton 19 there were two free standing stones in the south west sector, possibly cemetery markers.

[S MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal

Of the 65 multiple similar disposal sites, 63 contain disposals with no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites have a general distribution, and were simple monuments or settings.

The unaccompanied disposals include groupings in cremation cemeteries (the largest being of c. 260 at 1603 Portland 1), and number approximately and conservatively 1100 individuals. Only two of these individuals were clearly identified as male, and seven as female, any disposal on a cemetery site seldom being clearly identified by sex. All of the ten sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.

Turning to the five accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (three of the unaccompanied disposal sites also have accompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, there were these few instances: personal decor (2 cases), token (2), domestic refuse (3), personal utensil (2), and objet trouvée (1). Identification of this item begins to become difficult, as a vessel may be a cremation container or ritual aid rather than a grave good item as in previous periods, and the item may be in multiple occurrence on a cremation site. No males were identified among these, but one female disposal was accompanied by three small accessory vessels. Two of the ten sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals.

[S MSD] Elite burial rites?

This group has provided no evidence for any elite burial rite. Grave goods were again minimal, and the disposal process and rites provide no particular discriminators. The ritual activity is much more in evidence, but is not clear that where it exists that it is discriminating in favour of an elite.

The use of the settlement midden deposit at 1703 Potterne is particularly interesting, given the issue hanging over the possible use of settlements for or in connection with disposal processes, especially given the rich contents of the midden.

[S MSD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 478 Shrewton 5a (1220, 1170bc), 1343 Barrow B Simon's Ground (1250, [489]bc), 1345 Barrow C Simon's Ground (917, 741bc), and 1660 Alington Avenue (1210bc).

Multiple varied disposals

[S MVD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 41 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows, ring ditches and urn cemeteries, the most limited range yet encountered. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (5), mound (33), pit (31), cairn (6), cist (5), platform or paving (2), pyre (2), urn (36), bag (2), stone arrangements (4), urnfield (15) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3009].

Of the more numerous types, the urns (36) are distributed in a group around Stonehenge (7 sites), and then fall in an area to the south west, from Bokerley Dyke to Dorchester. Mounds (33) are concentrated in the area from around Stonehenge south west to Dorchester, and pits (31) are similarly distributed, but are slightly more scattered also to the east into Hampshire.

[S MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple varied disposals, all of the 41 sites containing disposals using it, and three also using a multiple phase rite. There were 11 sites with evidence for ritual activity, on all occasions with single phase rite disposals, and three times jointly with the multiple phase rite disposals.

The eleven sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur only in the area from Bokerley Dyke south west to Dorchester and environs, an interesting concentration. As in the other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence at multiple varied disposal sites in the south area includes:

The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is reasonably well represented, and there are interesting features in the handling of bone or cremated material. No group in this period has yet shown very strong uses of fire on site, even though the use of cremation is very dominant. The suggestion of the excavator at 1356 Poole 34 that cremated remains might have been stored for a while before deposition, might bear some relationship to the lack of fire evidence. The pyre rite may have been more often carried out off-site, and the urnfield or barrow deposition taking place later. There are, however, other sites where it is clear that the pyre rite and the disposal were close events, as the cremated material scorched the place where it was laid, even baking the urn on occasion.

The one clear incidence (1356 Poole 34) of possible continuation of the multiple phase rite of excarnation into a cremation phase is again interesting, and supports the idea that although cremation was prevalent, it might have become just the closing phase to disposal of the body material as an addition to rather than a replacement for pre-inhumation activity with the body. In this particular case, assuming that the skull belonged to the cremated body, the body may have been reserved until defleshed after death, then the skull selected for separate deposition, the rest being cremated. It is only the second such possible clear incidence.

In general, therefore, the traditions for this group are carried on from previous periods, although the occurrences are more sparse and less definitive, as for example in the cases of domestic refuse and pit deposits. In a further generalisation, this group has more in common with the multiple similar disposal group than with the single disposals.

[S MVD] Disposal process

Of the 41 sites, 27 were cremation only sites, 13 inhumation and cremation, and one inhumation only. This was slightly different from the other two groups which had fewer joint sites each, and more inhumation only sites.

Single phase rites occurred on all sites in this group, and multiple phase rites certainly three times. At the multiple phase rite sites there was evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment at 626 Shrewton 2 (disarticulated bone in the mound), and 778 Winterborne Steepleton 4a (skull placed to rest on mouth of urn containing the cremation). At 776 Winterborne Kingston 14 the central part of cremation might have been removed for burial elsewhere, and at 1356 Poole 34 the cremated remains were possibly stored for a while before final deposition.

[S MVD] Tokenism

Deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 521 Bower Chalke 11, 798 Barnes Urnfield, and 1356 Poole 34.

[S MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures

There were no mortuary houses of the types met with in the previous periods, but there were post structures. These occurred at: 691 Gussage St Michael 21 (crude ring of post-holes in the ditch), 701 Handley 24 (marker post socket), 776 Winterborne Kingston 14 (four-post structure to support pyre), 1356 Poole 34 (scattered stake-holes, and one three-post set), 1576 Daneshill (post-holes between graves), and 1628 Berwick St John 10 (stake-hole).

[S MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal

Of the 41 multiple varied disposal sites, all contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 12 sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves 29 sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposal sites follow the general geographical distribution of the group. Of approximately 500 individuals buried without grave goods in this group (including one cremation cemetery of c. 100 at 1611 Weymouth 34), seven were identified as male and eight as female.

All sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.

There were 12 sites with accompanied disposals, all of which had unaccompanied disposals present. The grave goods included: personal decor (5 cases), personal craft (1), excellence (1), token goods (1), whole animal (1), domestic refuse (1), and personal utensil (4).

The one clearly identified accompanied male disposal was associated with two pots and flints including a scraper.

The two identified female accompanied disposals were associated with: a small Neolithic sherd (1 case [radiocarbon dated to 1180bc]), and a burnt flint (1).

Five sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.

[S MVD] Elite burial rites?

There are again no particular signs of elite rite. The group indeed has a higher proportion (for its size) of ritual activity, which continues the parallels for this disposal type from previous periods.

[S MVD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 685 Easton Down Ring Ditch R7 (range 1210-1130bc), 701 Handley 24 (range 950-720bc), 776 Winterborne Kingston 14 (1020bc), 1352 Barrow F Simon's Ground (904, 845bc), 1356 Poole 34 (range 1189-1102bc), and 1576 Daneshill (1280, 1250bc).

[S] Sites without disposals

There are a few sites with some features of interest in the south area for this period. The possible occupation site at 1675 Warmwell Quarry (which also had a cremation deposit) is particularly notable.

While by no means so rich in activity as the site at 1196 Trethellan Farm, it provides some more evidence for non-burial site ritual activity which may become relevant as the research develops. The settlement site at 1703 Potterne (described earlier) has evidence also in support of the notion that activity was carried out which may have held for both disposal and non-disposal ritual. Elsewhere in the south area there were these features without disposals:

The activity of this kind is much reduced so far on quasi-burial sites of the period, but the evidence recovered for such activity on settlement sites is a counterbalance.

The Bronze Age in the South East

Cremation and inhumation

The sites using solely cremation (40) are focused in east Kent, the South Downs, the Staines Thames Valley area, to the west of Oxford, and a scatter to the north. Sites with solely inhumation (18) have the same distribution. The sites with mixed methods (4) fall in Oxfordshire, Berkshire and Sussex.

The different types of disposal sites have very slightly different frequencies of use. The single disposal sites divide markedly between those using only cremation (17) and those using only inhumation (14), with only one site using both methods. The multiple similar sites favour cremation less but have a similar clear division (12:4:0). The multiple varied disposal sites diverge from this pattern, with sites holding cremations at 11, followed by sites holding both cremations and inhumations at three but with no inhumation only sites. This difference from the other types repeats that of the south west and sosuth areas.

Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal sites, repeating the pattern of previous periods, but (as did the south area) diverging from the south west area in this particular period. At five instances on 14 sites, it is nearly twice as frequent as on multiple similar disposal sites (three times on 16 sites), and about eleven times as frequent as on single disposal sites (1:32). This is a slightly different pattern from that met before in the south west area, when multiple similar disposals had more ritual activity. However, it mirrors patterns of past periods for the type.

[SE] The single disposals

[SE SD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 32 sites are distributed among the categories of ring ditches, pits and graves, round barrows, settlements, and rivers. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (8), mound (4), pit (24), cairn (2), cist (1), platform or paving (1), pyre (1), urn (16) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3001].

For distribution, only the larger numbers in this analysis of container types are worth further examination. The 24 pit sites' distribution reflects three of the main site foci, east Kent, the South Downs, and Oxford (west and south), with a few scattered about the remaining south east area. Sites with urns (16) are similarly distributed, but with none in the north east (North Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire). The numbers are too small for generalisations.

[SE SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in single disposals, all of the 32 sites using it, and none on the initial analysis using a multiple phase rite. There was one site in the group with evidence for ritual activity and a few others with evidence suggesting that ritual activity of other kinds may have taken place:

Compared to the south area, the variety of ritual activity is much less in this group, and is more comparable with the diminished level of the south west area. The ditch activity at 909 Shuart Farm is reminiscent of the causewayed enclosure deposits, and some at other sites in previous periods.

[SE SD] Disposal process

Of the 32 sites, 17 were cremation only sites, 14 inhumation only and one had both processes. Single phase rites exist at all sites. There were several sites where, on deeper examination, there was a multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body before final deposition: 909 Shuart Farm, 910 East Northdown, 1064 Ashville Trading Estate, 1073 Kew, and 1074 Battersea.

[SE SD] Tokenism

Token deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur at: (?)909 Shuart Farm, 910 East Northdown, (?)1064 Ashville Trading Estate, 1073 Kew, 1074 Battersea and 1519 Castle Hill.

[SE SD] Mortuary and other internal structures

There was no clear evidence.

[SE SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal

Of the 32 single disposal sites the majority (23) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals reflect the main disposal and container usage distributions. Two of these unaccompanied disposals were clearly identified as male, and three as female.

The only site with evidence for ritual activity contained an unaccompanied disposal.

Turning to the nine accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, there were these deposits: goods of excellence (1 case), token (2), domestic refuse (3), and personal utensils (3). No sex was recorded for any accompanied disposal. No grave goods were in combination. Even though sparse, there was a rather higher proportion of accompanied single disposals in the south east area than elsewhere.

[SE SD] Elite burial rites?

There continues to be less evidence in this period to detect elite treatment of individuals at burial. Grave goods are scant and there are no particularly complex monuments or settings. There is the first appearance of a river deposit, but in the nature of such isolated, partial and unaccompanied disposals it is hard to divine the context for the deposition and whether it has elite significance. It has been shown how varied are the physical contexts for disposal of the dead over a period now approaching 3000 years.

The deposit of domestic refuse with human bone in the ditch at 909 Shuart Farm has echoes of causewayed enclosure practice of 3500-2500bc, and if the structure were a farming enclosure as was suggested, might provide a tenuous link to a theory advanced earlier that bodies of the dead were often conserved in some way before final deposition (whether cremated or inhumed). The practice might have involved the placing of the fleshed remains in midden-like contexts or in other places of exposure until they had reached an acceptable state ready for the next phase (or until a particular time had come), and perhaps ditches of the causewayed enclosures were used as such receptacles just as were the ditches at 909 Shuart Farm (and ditches elsewhere in the periods covered so far).

In later (as well as earlier) times these midden contexts might have been sited in or by settlements. The presence of more casual human bone finds which are beginning to appear on settlements (1519 Castle Hill in this group for example) can be explained by this theory: if human bone curation or conservation were a constant on settlements, casual pieces would occur. The suggestion does not preclude the formal deposition phases, or an alternative process omitting curation or conservation. It might begin to explain the alleged disappearance of visible burials, by positing that what was presumed absent was in fact constantly present but needs different recognition.

A postscript to this idea: the occasional siting of a burial monument on an occupation site might be more explicable if links between mortuary practice and settlement ritual life were strong. It might have been an act with meaning through this linkage to choose a hut as a disposal site.

[SE SD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 910 East Northdown (1070, 960bc), 954 Field Farm Ring Ditch 417 (940bc), 937 Warren Farm Ring Ditch MK13 (1040bc), 1001 Knight's Farm 3 (870bc), 1073 Kew (960bc), and 1074 Battersea (1000bc).

[SE] The multiple similar disposals

[SE MSD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 16 sites are distributed among the categories of urnfields, round barrows, ring ditches, pits, rivers, settlements, and a crematorium. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (1), mound (4), pit (13), urn (11), urnfield (7) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3002]. The most frequent container, the pit (13 sites), follows the general distribution of the disposal type. The urn (11) occurs five times in the Thames Valley-Staines area and scattered elsewhere. Four of the seven urnfields occur in the Thames Valley-Staines area, and the rest to east or west, but none in the far south or far north.

[SE MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south east area, evidence is that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple similar disposals, all of the sites using it just as in the south and south west areas. There were three sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, all on cremation sites, and several others with activity possibly of a ritual nature which have been included in the summary below:

The variety of ritual activity is very limited, a return to the more common state for this disposal type. However, the signally ritually rich site at 923 The Cop Round Barrow demonstrates that the activity of non-burial deposition is being maintained as strongly as ever on some sites.

[SE MSD] Disposal process

Of the 16 sites, 12 were cremation only sites, four inhumation only and three had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. There was no site where there was a possible multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body.

[SE MSD] Tokenism

Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 932 Harrold Ring Ditch 16 Area III, and 1072 Mortlake. Fragments found in settlement contexts unless unambiguously deposited as a token disposals are excluded.

[SE MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures

There is no evidence.

[SE MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal

Of the 16 multiple similar disposal sites, 14 contain disposals with no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites have a general distribution, and were simple monuments or settings, or were apparent casual occurrences. The unaccompanied disposals include groupings in cremation cemeteries (the largest at 970 Lambourn Seven Barrows with c. 113), and number conservatively c. 220 individuals. Only two individuals were clearly identified as male, and one as female, any disposal on a cemetery site seldom being clearly identified by sex.

Two of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.

Turning to the four accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (two of the unaccompanied disposal sites also have accompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, there were these very few instances: excellence (2 cases, one unassociated), token (1), animal bone (2), domestic refuse (1), and personal utensil (2). No males were identified among these, but one female disposal was accompanied by sherds.

One of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals.

[SE MSD] Elite burial rites?

This group has again provided no convincing evidence for an elite burial rite. Grave goods were again minimal, and the disposal process and rites provide no particular discriminators. There were two sites with bronze dagger associations, one of them on a cremation cemetery site being the sole accompanied urned cremation (and even then possibly belonging to the last period, given the collared urn type). The ritual activity is again very subdued, occurring mainly at two sites.

Comment has already been made on the possible connection of mortuary ritual and settlement ritual activity which is becoming visible as settlement evidence emerges. The finds at 1088 Itford Hill and 1505 Minnis Bay of human bone parts in storage pits taken with other such finds (both partial and whole) in similar contexts (pits, ditches or hut areas), and taking non-burial ritual activity into account, support the suggestion, but are not yet suggesting any particular selection process for settlement treatment.

[SE MSD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south east area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1072 Mortlake (800, 790bc), and 1088 Itford Hill Settlement (1000bc).

[SE] Multiple varied disposals

[SE MVD] Disposal container types and distributions

The 14 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows, ring ditches, settlement enclosures and urn cemeteries. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (3), mound (4), pit (14), cairn (1), cist (2), platform or paving (1), pyre (3), urn (12), bag (2), urnfield (7) and no others [codes 3151-3173 in 1:1 combination with 3009].

Of the more numerous types in a very small group, the pits (14) are distributed very thinly, with a few just south of Oxford, a few around Reading, a few on the South Downs, and the remainder here and there to north and east. The urns (12) occur in the same thin distribution, and the seven cremation cemeteries likewise but with none to the north.

[SE MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits

In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple varied disposals, 13 of the 14 sites containing disposals using it, and one using a multiple phase rite. There were five sites with evidence for ritual activity, on four occasions with single phase rite disposals, and once with the multiple phase rite disposal.

The five sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur mostly in the northern part of the south east area in Oxfordshire, Berkshire, and Bedfordshire, with one occurrence in Kent. As in the other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south east area includes:

The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is small, but so is the number of sites. There are really only two unambivalent types, the pit activity on one site, and the artefact burial at another. The possibility of cremation being preceded by body defleshing at 1110 Itford Hill Barrow has significant implications, and relates to the theory that suggests an extended ritual process for disposals generally, perhaps one starting in the occupation area. It may possibly undermine the assumption that a single rite was so apparently dominant, and suggests instead that cremation may have been concealing a multiple phase rite in some cases. On the other hand, there is still only limited evidence to sustain the theory.

[SE MVD] Disposal process

Of the 14 sites, 11 were cremation only sites, three inhumation and cremation, and none inhumation only. This was again slightly different from the other two groups which had fewer joint sites each, and more inhumation only sites. Single phase rites occurred on 13 sites in this group, and multiple phase rites certainly once. There was evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment at 1110 Itford Hill Barrow (absence of bone from cremation material [possibly indicating cremation of defleshed bodies]).

[SE MVD] Tokenism

Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 978 Barrow Hills Field 16, 997 Sunningdale Golf Course, (?)1086 Cock Hill Enclosure [ditch terminal deposit], 1110 Itford Hill Barrow and 1331 Reading Business Park.

[SE MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures

There were no mortuary houses quite of the type met with in the previous periods, but at 1086 Cock Hill Enclosure there were several structures with mortuary associations: a small lean-to structure enclosing a pit with cremation burial, a semi-circular walled enclosure with a cremation and marker post, and a hut with cremation burial pit. This was a very interesting site for the way in which burial deposit structures and settlement activity co-existed. The link between settlement and burial site shown to exist at 1110 Itford Hill Barrow (and at other sites encountered before) may thereby be given a context.

There were post and other structures. These occurred at: 920 Roxton Ring Ditch C (stake-hole in central cremation burial pit), 1110 Itford Hill Barrow (marker stake-holes), and 1124 Stoneyfield and Upper Snailslynch (some marker posts).

[SE MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal

Of the 14 multiple varied disposal sites, 10 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although five of these sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves five sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposal sites occur in the Reading area and on the South Downs, with a few widely scattered elsewhere in the mid part of the region. Of approximately 220 individuals buried without grave goods in this group (c. 70 of these occurred at 1026 Standlake Ring Ditch 1), none were identified as male and three as female.

Two sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.

There were nine sites with accompanied disposals, five of which had unaccompanied disposals present. The grave goods included: personal decor (1 case), personal craft (1), excellence (1), token goods (4), part animal (1), domestic refuse (2), personal utensil (3), and articulated animal part (1). There was seldom a multiple association of goods.

The one clearly identified accompanied male disposal was associated with a pair of bone toggles and charcoal (with female below).

The one possible identified female accompanied disposal was associated with a pair of bone toggles and charcoal (with male above).

Three sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.

[SE MVD] Elite burial rites?

There are again no particular signs of elite rite. Even grave goods have diminished as indicators, although there are still disposals made with more (even if modest) elaboration than the majority. The particular interest of this group lies in the settlement evidence for disposal within or immediately outside the occupation area, to which reference has already been made, and which deserves further attention.

[SE MVD] Radiocarbon dates

Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 879 Bekesbourne-with-Patrixbourne (1020, 930bc), and 920 Roxton Ring Ditch C (1250, 1180bc).

[SE] Sites without disposals

There is one site with some features of interest in the south east area for this period - 906 Northdown, which has disposals for the previous period. This site is intersting if compared with that of the settlement at 1703 Potterne which contained a similarly rich deposit in which human cranial fragments were found. The notion of the redeposition of domestic refuse and used bronze goods in a chalk quarry probably used as the source of supply for agricultural dressing is possibly significant in the broader ritual context.

The other general feature of interest has already been referred to in previous sections of this section. The growth in appearance of settlements in the visible record and the growth in the visible record of disposal on settlements may be no coincidence, especially if related to evidence on non-disposal sites which has been accruing to suggest a broader context for much of the ritual activity on disposal sites.


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