Inhumation only sites dominate, having 39 examples against 3 with cremation only and 2 with evidence for both methods. Inhumation is widely distributed across the whole south west area, and the five cremation examples are also spread from the north Cotswolds to South Devon. The single disposal sites and multiple varied disposal sites include cremation examples, but the multiple similar sites have none. The tendency of the single disposal sites to support the cremation disposal method more consistently throughout all periods continues in this one.
Ritual activity continues to occur in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal site. At 5 instances on 14 sites it is nearly twice as frequent as on multiple similar disposal sites (3:13). Single disposal sites provide no examples.
[SW SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 17 sites are distributed among the categories of isolated graves, fortified settlements, oppida, barrows, fogous, caves and open settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (3), mound (2), pit (9), cairn (1), chamber (1), cist (3), urn (2), shaft (1) and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1001]. Pits are distributed thinly from the north Cotswolds to Cornwall.
[SW SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was very dominant, all sites using it. There were no sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity.
[SW SD] Disposal process
Of the 17 sites, 3 were cremation only, 14 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites, and there was no evidence for multiple phasing.
[SW SD] Tokenism
Token deposits do not occur.
[SW SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 474 Norbury Camp there apparently were remains of post-holes in three corners of the grave pit.
[SW SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 17 single disposal sites, rather less than half (8) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed widely across the area. One of these disposals was clearly identified as male, and one as female.
Turning to the 9 accompanied single disposals, and taking grave good types individually: personal decor (1 example), personal craft (1), excellence (1), token (2), animal part (1), domestic refuse (2) and personal utensil (3). Associations of these together in one burial were infrequent. The three clearly identified male disposals are associated with: possible bronze objects (1), sherds (1), and animal bones and a crushed vessel (1). The one identifiable female accompanied disposal was associated with sherds.
[SW SD] Elite burial rites?
The particulars of these burials do not give much support for an elite burial rite. There appear to be no particular distinguishing characteristics in location, grave goods, disposal rite or method to clearly indicate an elite group or process.
[SW SD] Radiocarbon dates
There are no sites holding single disposals for this period with recorded radiocarbon dates.
[SW MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 13 sites cover the categories of lake villages, flat cemeteries, caves, fortified settlements, shrines and round barrows. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (7), pit (3), cist (3), urn (1), shaft (1) and no other [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1002]. The open ground sites are all sited in the south Cotswolds-Mendip region, and the cists in Scilly and Cornwall.
[SW MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in multiple similar disposals, 12 sites using it, with one also using a multiple phase rite. There were three sites with evidence for ritual activity. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple similar disposal sites in the south west area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is limited to a few forms seen in previous periods, but the main interest is in the site at 1332 Uley where there were two probable Iron Age shrines. This site in one sense contains no unusual deposits - they have all been seen before. The architecture and design is unusual, however, and the buildings have no traces of domestic use. The placing of the burials appears deliberate. There have been sites with possible ritual purposes occasionally identified on settlements in both of the previous two periods. It is conceivable that the reduction in visible ritual activity seen at the burial location itself over 8/700bc-AD43 is occurring because the focus of belief and location for some rituals has shifted elsewhere. In the period 100bc-AD43 an issue to be discussed is whether the influence of continental beliefs and practices is beginning to be felt, resulting in this change, and whether it provided a stimulus to something which had already been developing in southern England for some time. This extends the initial interest in attitudes to disposal of the dead, to how these attitudes began over time to encompass a spectrum of wider beliefs of a wider religious nature. There have been indications certainly in the last period that a development in thought was taking place which may have started in earlier periods.
[SW MSD] Disposal process
All 13 sites were inhumation only. Single phase rites were carried out at 12 sites. There was one site where there was a multiple phase rite clearly implied by the state of the body, although evidence at some others was very suggestive. These sites were at: 1254 Meare Lake Village West, 1298 Backwell, 1299 Read's Cavern, 1300 Hay Wood Cave, and 1399 Cadbury Camp.
[SW MSD] Tokenism
Token deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 1254 Meare Lake Village West (hut foundation deposit?).
[SW MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There is no evidence for these.
[SW MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 13 multiple similar disposal sites, 11 have disposals with no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites are distributed in the same way as the whole group. None of these disposals was clearly identified by sex. Two of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the eight accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (six of the 13 sites in the group share accompanied and unaccompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually there is this site occurrence: personal decor (6), personal craft (1), excellence (4), animal part (1), domestic refuse (4), and personal utensil (2). No sexes were identified. The goods of excellence included brooches at 156 Porth Cressa, a bronze mirror, beads and rings at 1249 Trelan Bahow, brooches in the cave deposits at 1299 Read's Cavern and rings, bracelets and beads at 1328 Cadbury Castle (the possible ritual shaft).
Two of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[SW MSD] Elite burial rites?
The variety of disposal is again wide, from the formal cemetery disposals to cave disposals of ambiguous nature, and, in between, the numerous casual finds on settlement sites. The ritual activity is muted. There are some distinctive disposals (those of infants in the shrine foundations at 1332 Uley, and the more ambiguous contents of the well shaft at 1328 Cadbury Castle), and there are well ordered, relatively rich and carefully made disposals in the cist cemeteries. Apart from these, it is again hard to see an elite group, or an elite rite otherwise emerging from the evidence for the multiple similar disposals.
[SW MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south west area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1254 Meare Lake Village West (range down to 130bc).
[SW MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 14 sites are distributed among the categories of lake villages, fortified settlements, flat cemeteries, caves and isolated graves. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (7), mound (3), pit (13), cairn (1), cist (4), binding (1), stone arrangements (2), bucket (1), and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1009]. The open ground sites are concentrated in the Mendip area (largely caves) and in the north Cotswolds. The pits are scattered over the whole area in the same distribution as the general one for the group.
[SW MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was completely dominant in multiple varied disposals, all sites using it. There were five sites with evidence for ritual activity, all in Gloucestershire and Somerset. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south west area includes:
There is slight evidence for ritual activity, with the most interesting perhaps the graves at 1196 Trethellan Farm appearing to be arranged around the front of the Bronze Age building. This may not be ritual, but it denotes some respect for the earlier site by the later generations. At 1136 Bredon Hill the mutilation of massacred fighters is an act not perhaps connected with the disposal in the same way as other mutilations.
[SW MVD] Disposal process
Of the 14 sites, none were cremation only sites, 12 inhumation only and 2 had both processes. This was a slightly different pattern of incidence from those of the other two groups, where evidence for both disposal process on one site was non-existent in both cases. Single phase rites occurred on all sites in this group, and the multiple phase rite, but not unambiguously in burial contexts (human bone use nonetheless went on in other contexts). The continuing appearance of casual human skeletal material in settlements suggests that multiple phase rites may still have existed as in previous periods.
[SW MVD] Tokenism
No token deposits occur in this period.
[SW MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There is no evidence for these.
[SW MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 14 multiple varied disposal sites 10 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although eight of those sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves just two sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposals are widely distributed, but with a small concentration in the Glastonbury Plain region. Ten of the unaccompanied disposals were clearly identified as male, and eight as female.
Four of the five sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 12 accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (8 of these also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually, the site incidence is: personal decor (5), personal craft (5), excellence (4), token (2), animal part (2), whole animal (2), domestic refuse (4), personal utensil (2) and articulated animal part (1).
Several of these sites appear to have massacre disposals, where many personal items and weaponry intermingle with a confused mass of bones, making precise associations impossible. At another site, the flat cemetery at 1178 Stamford Hill, there were many goods of considerable excellence, but no detailed descriptions of graves were recorded. Elsewhere the four clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with: domestic refuse, pebbles and a burnt deposit of wheat, barley, corn, and bones of small birds (1 case), carbonised and burnt wheat grains, sheep bones, burnt limestone nodule, three sherds, flint flake, triangular red limestone, charcoal (1), iron billhook, triangular iron knife, latch-lifter, tanged dagger (1) and a pig jaw and two sheep jaws (1). The two female accompanied disposals are associated with: oval bronze mirror, fine silver gilt La Tène III brooch, 4 plain bronze rings, a bronze handle with animal head terminal, bronze armlet, necklace of red and yellow amber beads (1 case), and a sherd (1)
Four of the five sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.
[SW MVD] Elite burial rites?
The group contains a variety of disposals, the more unusual of which are those accompanied by fine goods and those with a more elaborate or careful disposal rite. Among the latter, at 1184 Worlebury in Pit 9 there appears to have been a deliberate burnt setting at the bottom with the three inhumations buried over it. At 1219 Ireley Farm a male was buried with a collection of items of possible symbolic meaning.
Among those with fine goods, the 1178 Stamford Hill cemetery contained graves with some very rich pottery and bronze, 1218 Cowley 4 (Birdlip) held the grave of a female with an exceptionally beautiful bronze mirror and other goods, and the 1231 Ham Hill cremation was accompanied by an anthropoid hilted dagger and other fine bronze armour. These richer burials with their fine weaponry or fine personal goods may in some cases have a different character from those of 2500-14/1300bc when such goods last had some prominence. There is no particular suggestion from the other characteristics that disposal method or rite differed for these persons.
[SW MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south west area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 13 South Cadbury (?), 1240 Glastonbury Lake Village (30bc, 25bc), and 1253 Meare Lake Village East (range 210-130bc).
[SW] Sites without disposals
There are no sites without disposals in this area with features of interest recorded in the Gazetteer.
[S] Cremation and inhumation
The sites using cremation have three apparent concentrations, appearing in the south west and north of the south area, and on the Isle of Wight. The sites with only inhumation follow the general distribution of sites in the area. In respect of the disposal process, there are 11 cremation only sites, against 57 for inhumation only and just one site with both methods. However, the different types of disposal sites reflect different frequencies of use. The single disposal sites divide between those using only cremation (9) and those using only inhumation (17), with no sites using both methods. The multiple similar sites have a similar clear division (2:23:0). However the multiple varied disposal sites diverge from this pattern, with no sites using solely cremation, 17 using inhumation only and just one site with both methods.
Ritual activity occurs more often on multiple varied disposal sites, and with 4 instances on 18 sites it is nearly twice as frequent as occurrence on multiple similar disposal sites (3 occurrences on 25 sites). There (unusually) appears no evidence for ritual activity on the single disposal sites.
[S SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 26 sites are distributed among the categories of isolated graves, barrows, open settlements, and enclosed settlements. The barrows were mostly of this period, rather than reused Bronze Age sites as has occurred before. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (1), mound (7), pit (22), cist (1), coffin (1), binding (1), stone arrangements (1), bucket (2), and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1001].
The 7 mounds occur in the region just south of Bokerley Dyke, on the Isle of Wight, and in north Hampshire. The 22 pits are distributed very widely, following the general disposal distribution.
[S SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was, as in the south west area ,very dominant, all sites using it. There were no sites with evidence for ritual activity, but there was some slight evidence at five sites for ritual activity of the kind seen in previous periods:
[S SD] Disposal process
Of the 26 sites, 9 were cremation only sites, and 17 inhumation only. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites on evidence.
[S SD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 1292 Woodlands 12 (if the trepanned disc is not treated as a grave good).
[S SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 1534 Site BS/M2 Southern Feeder the rectangular pit had been dug with shelves on which planks had possibly rested to protect the body.
[S SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 26 single disposal sites, rather less than half (10) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals have no particular concentrations in the group. None of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and two as female.
Turning to the 16 accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, there are: personal decor items (4 examples), personal craft (1), excellence (4), token (1), domestic refuse (3), personal utensil (8) and objet trouvée (1). There are occasional associations of one type of grave good with another: personal decor with excellence (1), personal decor with personal utensil (1), personal craft with excellence (1), domestic refuse with a token item (1), and with an objet trouvée (1).
The four identified male disposals are associated with: iron sword, sheath, shield, sword suspension rings and a flat iron disc (1 case), shale armlet (1), animal bones and sherds (1), and 2 sherds (1). The two identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: iron penannular brooch (1 case), and a bead rim jar, one complete and two fragmentary hand made jars (1). The appearance of vessels of fine form and sometimes in quantity as grave good accompaniments is a new feature.
[S SD] Elite burial rites?
There seem to be several types of burial in this group. The first is the isolated inhumation or cremation with grave goods of utilitarian type (bowls, jars and other vessels sometimes in quantity, or iron brooches or clothes fasteners). The second type is the settlement pit or ditch burial, much less frequent in this period so far, with part or whole inhumations. The third is the rich burial which seems to have occurred in a variety of settings, settlement pits, small barrows and isolated graves. The rich burials divide between those with fine weaponry and those with fine collections of vessels of different types, including bronze ornamented buckets. The fourth is the unaccompanied burial which may take place in simple or elaborate monumental settings. There might be yet another, where one individual was bound and laid on a rock between other rocks near an Iron Age midden.
Once again it appears that some individuals received more elaborate burials than others, either through the richer grave goods or by virtue of the monument (with barrow-building making a reappearance).
[S SD] Radiocarbon dates
There are no sites with recorded radiocarbon dates.
[S MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 25 sites cover the categories of isolated graves, flat cemeteries, open settlements, enclosed settlements, fortified settlements, shafts, shrines, and enclosed homesteads. In broad constructional terms, sites used these methods to contain the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (2), mound (1), pit (22), cist (4), urn (1), shaft (1), bucket (1), and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1002]. Pit distribution reflects that of the group.
[S MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
The evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was totally dominant in multiple similar disposals. However, at 705 Handley 29 one burial in the ditch was disarticulated, and at 1317 Winklebury human remains buried in the pits of the hill fort shared the characteristics of such burials in the last period. Some could have been the subject of a multiple phase rite since they were disarticulated or partial or had bones missing.
There were three sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, two in Hampshire, one in Dorset. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple similar disposal sites in the south area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is concentrated on a few sites of differing kinds. The shaft deposit may be the precursor to ritual shafts which are found in the Romano-British period, but does itself have a tenuous line of ancestry stretching back into the Earlier Neolithic. The shrine with its infant burials parallels that at 1332 Uley in the south west area, and it is interesting that it is sited apparently just west of an Early Iron Age shrine. The enclosed homestead at 1553 Viables Farm contained a disposal of unusual kind for such a small settlement site.
[S MSD] Disposal process
Of the 25 sites, only 2 were cremation only sites, and the remaining 23 sites were inhumation only. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites, although (as has been pointed out above) there is the possibility that multiple phase rites did exist at 1317 Winklebury and 705 Handley 29.
[S MSD] Tokenism
There were no occurrences of tokenism in this group.
[S MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There is no evidence for these.
[S MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 25 multiple similar disposal sites, 8 have disposals with no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposals are distributed mostly in the south west Dorset region with three others in the north and north west of the area. Four of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and 8 as female. Two of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 21 accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (4 of the 25 sites in the group share accompanied and unaccompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, they occur as follows: personal decor items (6 sites), personal craft (4), excellence (4), animal parts (5), whole animals (1), domestic refuse (3), personal utensils (18), objets trouvées (2) and articulated animal parts (1). The number of instances of animal associations is notable. The most frequent accompaniment type, the personal utensil (usually bowls, jars or other vessels), was usually made by itself, although several utensils were frequently deposited together. The record of a particularly well- furnished cemetery at 153 Jordan Hill unfortunately does not indicate the combinations of the many types of grave good that it held for the more than 80 inhumations. Similarly, the site at 1308 Spettisbury Rings (a war grave) held at least 120 burials and associated objects, but none was clearly related to individual disposals. Elsewhere, there are examples of combinations of goods of excellence with animal bone, personal utensils with domestic refuse, and personal craft items with domestic refuse (animal bones and sherds).
The four clearly identified male accompanied disposals are associated with: a jar (1 case), sherds and two chalk daub 'pillars' (1), shapeless piece of handmade pottery (1), and bronze objects (1 with female below).
The eight identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: 3 bowls and a butt-beaker (1 case), animal bones, spindle-whorl and sherds (1), sherds and animal bones (1), sherds and brooch (1), pot and oxbone (1), bronze mirror, jar, and bronze objects (1 with male above), animal bone, horse head, sheep, and (in a square hole beneath the animal bones two pairs of antler toggles, a silvered bronze terret and a bone terret) (1 with the next), and unfinished antler combs, antler cheekpiece, sheep, horse parts, and cattle parts (1 with the last).
Two of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[S MSD] Elite burial rites?
The disposals appear to subdivide into groups as in the last area. In this area there are mass graves apparently after some military conflict, organised flat cemeteries with earth or cist graves ranging in size from two or three graves to 80-90, isolated graves which are similar in may instances to those in the communal cemeteries (some of these sites may even be part of cemeteries undiscovered), settlement pit disposals and shrine disposals. There is one, now rare, instance of a monument from a previous period being reused, and there is a shaft disposal.
The amount of ritual activity has reduced, and the main distinctions between disposals still focus on the excellence of goods set down, or style of disposal. There are still examples of the striking disposal where accompaniment and arrangement rather than excellence appear to indicate special treatment for those being buried (the double female burial at 1553 Viables Farm, for instance, quoted above). There are multiple similar burials where, alongside persons with modest or no grave goods, there are others with multiple settings of fine vessels and rich personal possessions. This has been the case on sites with more than one disposal over the five periods. As with other periods, there is also the occasional disposal where the burial with goods of excellence appears to be set aside from others. The infant burials at 1333 Maiden Castle Shrine perhaps need considering in the wider context of shrine usage in this and the previous periods.
If there is an elite burial rite, the impression given so far in this period is that it is a 'middle class' elite, there being no particular indication that a particularly narrow section of society is being picked out for notably special disposal processes. There may however be distinguishable groups.
[S MSD] Radiocarbon dates
There are no sites with recorded radiocarbon dates.
[S MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 18 sites are distributed among the categories of flat cemeteries, isolated flat graves, open settlements, fortified and enclosed settlements, and natural shafts. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (4), mound (1), pit (17), cairn (1), cist (1), coffin (1), urn (1), shaft (1), binding (1), stone arrangements (1), urnfield (1) and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1009]. The pit distribution (17 sites) coincides with the general distribution of these disposals, and other container types are of wider variety than usual, but in low numbers.
[S MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and other special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was apparently dominant in multiple varied disposals, all sites using it, and two of them also using a multiple phase rite. There were four sites with evidence for ritual activity, all with single phase rite disposals, and on two occasions jointly with multiple phase rite disposals. These all occur in Dorset. As in the other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south area includes:
The most notable aspect of these ritual activities is the extension from the last period of the practice of setting down an animal part (occasionally a whole animal) as an apparent food accompaniment, already detectable in other areas and groups in this period. This might imply a different practice from much of the animal bone accompaniment of the past, which has often seemed to imply the remains of consumption rather than the original food joints (commonly from pig, sheep, deer, ox and goat). There are still such bone deposits, with examples of pig mandibles, pig jaws, half a pig's head, goat rib, and ox bones. There are also deposits of articulated or other parts of horse and dog.
[S MVD] Disposal process
Of the 18 sites, none were cremation only sites, 17 inhumation only and one had both processes. This was a different pattern of incidence from those of the other two groups, both of which had examples of cremation, and both of which had no sites using both methods.
Single phase rites occurred on all sites in this group, and multiple phase rites on two sites although as is often the case, other sites have suggestive evidence. At the multiple phase rite sites (and others) there was evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment: at 827 Micheldever Wood R4 (fragmentary remains in the ditch), 1049 Woodyates (ditch deposit of skull and long bones), 1173 Gussage All Saints (disarticulated infant remains in pits), and 1190 Maiden Castle Fort (CII incomplete male inhumation, LXXV skull burial, LXI incomplete male inhumation). Settlements also held pits with fragmentary human remains, continuing evidence for disposals in the manner of the last period.
[S MVD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body do not generally occur unless that at 1049 Woodyates (skull and long bones buried as parcel in the ditch) is to be counted.
[S MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There is no evidence for these.
[S MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 18 multiple varied disposal sites 15 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 13 of those sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves just two sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposals are widely distributed. Of the unaccompanied disposals, 28 were identified as male, and 26 as female.
All of the four sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 16 accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (13 of these also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually, there is this site incidence: personal decor (9 sites), personal craft (3), excellence (3), token (1), animal part (6), whole animal (1), domestic refuse (4), personal utensil (8), objet trouvée (1), and articulated animal part (3). The personal decor items tend now to include armlets, toe and finger rings, the occasional bead, and clasps or brooches, usually for dress. Tools are rare in the sense of accompanying craft or occupation goods, and the goods of excellence focus on warrior goods burials. Animals in part or whole as apparent food offerings have grown in incidence, and the practice of setting down pottery vessels is also widespread.
The 35 clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with: iron sword, wooden scabbard, iron spear head, iron spear shaft ferrule, 2 bronze sword suspension rings, tinned or silvered belt hook, wooden shield with bronze butterfly shaped boss (1 case), bowl and iron brooch (1), iron (shroud?) clips, 2 bronze studs, iron stylus, a gaming set of 10 oval and 10 circular pieces, pig mandible, and a sling stone (1), jar, penannular brooch, young sheep (1), pottery vessel(s) (9), jar, bowl, animal bone (1), jar, bowl, domestic fowl bones, thoracic region of sheep or goat (1), unidentified bones (1), iron bracelet (1), iron sword, wooden scabbard, 2 iron suspension rings, iron spear head, iron hammer head, iron file, iron brooch, bronze belt hook, copper alloy strip and a circular chalk spindle- whorl with a round perforation (1), fibula (1), iron fragments (1), animal bones and articulated dog and horse bones (1), sherds and a bone gouge (1), sherds (1), legs and ribs of lamb (1), 4 sling stones (1), bronze spiral toe ring (2), fore-quarter of lamb (1), bronze spiral toe ring and leg of mutton (1), iron axe head, iron knife, bronze ear-scoop (1), ox skull (1), iron bracelet (1), ox bone, plain bronze ring (1), pottery bowl, 2 sling stones, iron dress clasp (1), and a bronze finger ring (1).
The 23 identified female accompanied disposals are associated with: immature pig jaw (1 case), amber bead, half pig skull, horse (?) jaw fragment (1), assorted animal bones (1), sherds (4), shale armlet, chalk loom-weight, slingstones (1), pottery vessels (6), half pig skull (1), spiral bronze toe ring (1), dog, headless lamb (1), iron arrow head (1), double iron finger ring, leg of lamb (1), mutton bones (1), shale armlet (1), sherds, iron brooch (1), and two brooches (1). It seems that accompaniments to the female burials were more modest than those with males, which is a shift from previous patterns where the distinction was not evident in any strength.
All of the four sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.
[S MVD] Elite burial rites?
Much as in the last group, the disposals divide into types, the inhumation group in flat cemeteries of differing sizes being the largest (eight sites), and settlement sites with pit or ditch burials being the next most frequent (seven sites). The others tended to be more isolated burials.
The burial of persons with full armour occurs twice, once as the focus of a subsequent small cremation cemetery on the only site which held both disposal methods. The other appears to have been set down in a small burial ground and appears not to have been a particular focus. These two are further examples of what must be assumed to be a military elite burial rite which has surfaced in other areas. There still continue to be disposals with particularly interesting grave good associations, such as that at 147 Pin's Knoll where an adolescent male was buried with a stylus and a full 20-piece game (and other items).
What is noticeable is the emergence of two seemingly most common contexts, the settlement pit or ditch disposal and the flat cemetery, with their different styles. Many of the pit disposals at settlements have scarcely changed from the practices of the previous or earlier periods, with whole and part body burials. The flat cemeteries are often closely associated with settlements, but they appear ordered, and their graves quite often contain standard items sometimes in combination. These items tend to be the pottery vessel (jar, pot or bowl) and a food joint of an animal or bird. It is not uncommon for the individual to be interred wearing an item of personal decor, most usually a ring, an armlet or a brooch used to pin together the garments in which they were buried. These seem to be further examples of a burial group, falling between the exotic warrior burials and those buried with little or no accompaniment.
There is very little to suggest that each group was treated ritually with any distinction. Finely accoutred warriors lie beside disposals with little or nothing to distinguish them - apparently. It may be that inclusion in the ordered cemetery was a class distinction separating those in them from those laid down in occupation areas. The latter may be fulfilling other purposes, as well.
A point is worth making about infant burials. These are now becoming much more strongly represented in the record. Indeed there are separate infant cemeteries at one or two sites (861 Poundbury for example), and it is not unusual to find several infants buried together even in the settlement pit contexts. Sometimes these infants have been disarticulated, and one was without its legs (which raises questions), but more usually they are complete. They are also buried with adults, so there is no invariable practice of separate infant burial (which has indeed been the same case, on the evidence to date, in each period). They appear in both formal and seemingly casual disposal contexts (as if left in the open).
It may ultimately be more helpful to consider burials as general classes rather than searching for an elite group given special treatment. Every period has produced its materially rich burials, but so has every period produced classes of disposals which move through a spectrum from relative simplicity and material poverty to the complex and rich. There are, however, strands which cross this line and which raise questions related to significance of the nature and style of disposal, apart from the material context. The idiosyncratic nature of some disposals, neither rich nor elaborate, but with other arresting qualities suggest that elite rites were but one strand of many in attitudes and beliefs displayed in disposal.
[S MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1173 Gussage All Saints (range 150bc-ad50), and 1190 Maiden Castle Fort (ad70).
[S] Sites without disposals
None are recorded in the Gazetteer for this period.
[SE] Cremation and inhumation
There are 42 cremation only sites, against 20 for inhumation only and 6 sites with both methods on them. This is a markedly different pattern from those of the south west and south areas, which were heavily biased towards inhumation. The distribution of the disposal methods shows no particular regional biases. The different types of disposal sites reflect different frequencies of use. The single disposal sites divide between those using only cremation (23) and those using only inhumation (9), with no sites using both methods. The multiple similar sites have a similar clear division (11:5:0). However, the multiple varied disposal sites diverge from this pattern and have a much more even sharing of types, with sites holding cremations at 8 followed by sites holding both cremations and inhumations and inhumation only sites at 6 each.
Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal site as it did in the south and south west areas. At four instances on 20 sites, it is three times as frequent an occurrence as on single disposal sites (2 occurrences on 32 sites), and as on multiple similar sites (1:16).
[SE SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 32 sites cover the categories of isolated flat graves (most), open settlements, closed settlements, ring ditches, and round barrows. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (2), mound (1), pit (30), urn (16), bucket (1), and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1001]. Given their quantity, the pits are generally distributed according to the group. Urn burials are mostly in the lower Thames Valley region with a few near Oxford, and the odd one elsewhere.
[SE SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was dominant in single disposals, all sites using it. There were two sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, and a possible third. The evidence for ritual activity at single disposal sites in this area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is very slight.
[SE SD] Disposal process
Of the 32 sites, 23 were cremation only sites, 9 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites, although evidence at two sites is suggestive. At 840 Mount Farm the neo-natal burial had been a redeposition, and at 1516 Thong Lane there was evidence for exposure of the body after death.
[SE SD] Tokenism
A token deposit occurs at: 1262 Cunning Man Burghfield.
[SE SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
No evidence occurs in this period.
[SE SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 32 single disposals, about one-third (11) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed thinly in the same pattern as the whole group. None of these disposals was clearly identified as male or female.
One of the two sites with evidence for ritual activity contains unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 21 accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, there are these examples: personal decor (10), personal craft (1), excellence (5), token (1), animal part (3), domestic refuse (3), personal utensil (14) and objet trouvée(1). Personal decor items are found seven times with personal utensil items, but otherwise combined associations are occasional, with more than two types together being rare. The items of greatest incidence occur in no particular geographical concentration, but mirror the general distribution of the group's sites.
The three clearly identified male disposals are associated with: weathered sherds (1 case), sherds (1), and animal bone and a bronze brooch (1). The five identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: bronze wire fragment, 2 small broken flint blades (1 case), pair of spoon-shaped bronze objects (1), butt beaker (1), domestic refuse (1), and 2 butt beakers, a bowl, flat dish, bronze brooch and an annular pebble charm or amulet (1).
One of the two sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied single disposals.
[SE SD] Elite burial rites?
There appears no evidence to suggest elite burial rites in terms of process, but there is again evidence for wealthier burial associations, burials with moderate goods (those with one or more vessels of different types), and burials of simplicity without goods. Rich goods occur at 196 Maulden Moor, 282 Felmersham Bridge, 1129 Puttenham 1, 1262 Cunning Man, 1264 Site OW11 Southern Feeder, 1265 Ward's Combe, 1284 Godden's Quarry, and 1288 Watlington. Other evidence for special treatment is held at 948 Galley Hill Barrow 4 and 1531 Rackham Hill where grave goods were insignificant in material wealth, but the individuals had barrows constructed to hold their remains. There also appear processes at these two sites of a similar kind involving deposition of materials not of grave good type. Should one compare the deposition of wealth in a flat grave with the expenditure of effort to raise a visible monument, and processes resembling those of periods a millennium before? Both recipients of such treatment are in a sense elite.
These types apart, one might speculate whether deposition in a former burial site (as the two in ring ditches) signals selection for special treatment, as opposed to other contexts in which the more modest single burials are found. In the area in the case of this group, there is generally a sense that most of these single disposals appear to be set down in formally created settings, and are complete burials. There is little evidence in this group for the part or fragmentary burial.
[SE SD] Radiocarbon dates
There are no sites with recorded radiocarbon dates.
[SE MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 16 sites cover the categories of isolated graves, flat cemeteries, river sites, fortified settlements, open and closed settlements, and shafts. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (1), pit (13), chamber (1), urn (7), shaft (1), bucket (1), and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1002]. Pits follow site distribution, and the urn disposals are very scattered.
[SE MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was once again, as in the south and south west areas, very dominant in multiple similar disposals, all sites using it. There was one site in the group with clear evidence for ritual activity. There are some sites where evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to them are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple similar disposal sites in this area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is again less.
[SE MSD] Disposal process
Of the 16 sites, 11 were cremation only sites, 5 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. Evidence at two sites was, however, very suggestive of multiple phase rites. These sites were at: 1071 Walbrook (skulls deposited in the Thames) and 1513 St Richard's Road, Mill Hill (skull fragments in refuse pit).
[SE MSD] Tokenism
There appears to be no evidence in this period, save possibly the sites just quoted.
[SE MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 425 Stanfordbury there were two massive paved burial vaults, each 4.5m x 3.6, x 1.5m deep, placed c. 9m apart. There has been nothing approaching this kind of structure in either the south west or south areas. Further comment is made below under the heading of elite burial rites.
[SE MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 16 multiple similar disposal sites, four sites have burials with no accompanying grave goods and three of those four have also accompanied burials. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites are too few in number for distribution to be of interest. None of these disposals was clearly identified as male or female.
The one site with evidence for ritual activity contained no unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 15 accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (three sites in the group share accompanied and unaccompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, there are these site incidences: personal decor (2 sites), personal craft (1), excellence (4), token (1), domestic refuse (2), and personal utensil (10). The absence of animal part or whole deposits is notable. The most common association is that of a vessel or vessels with the burial, and the next that of a vessel and a brooch or brooches, much as in the south west and south areas before. The collection of goods at 425 Stanfordbury is covered below.
There were no identified male accompanied disposals, and there was only one identifiable female accompanied disposal, associated with a tiny handmade (feeding?) vessel and an infant burial.
The one site with ritual activity contained an accompanied burial.
[SE MSD] Elite burial rites?
Again the mixture is of the very rich, the simple, the middling and the exotic. The burials at 425 Stanfordbury are of a scale and richness and in a setting not met before in this period. Those buried belonged to an exceedingly wealthy elite, and their grave goods appear to be exclusively domestic and personal items, except for the remains of a shield. The site appears to be one at the western edge of an area with other similar burials possibly stretching east to Colchester. There is one other wealthy (bucket) burial, more akin to those in the other areas, at 235 Quint's Hill.
The other elite examples are very different. Heads were thrown into the Thames at 1071 Walbrook (unless this is all we have of whole bodies deposited), and three persons were buried side by side at the bottom of a 10m deep shaft at 1329 Greenhithe, with animal bones and artefacts filling the shaft above. These are exotic burials, made in this fashion for a purpose presumably other than simple disposal. Elsewhere the burials are of small groups of inhumations or cremations with no particularly elite burial characteristics.
[SE MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1071 Walbrook (range 110BC-AD390 at 2 sigma).
[SE MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 20 sites are distributed among the categories of enclosed settlements, flat inhumation and cremation cemeteries, fortified settlements, open settlements, 'ceremonial' sites, isolated burial groups, and small homesteads. The sites follow the main distributions of those in the south east area. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (6), mound (1), pit (19), coffin (1), pyre (1), urn (12), bag (1), binding (1), bucket (2), and no others [codes 1151-1173 in 1:1 combination with 1009]. There are no particular concentrations of container type.
[SE MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite appears to be completely dominant in multiple varied disposals, all sites containing disposals using it. There were four sites with evidence for ritual activity which occur in a scatter across the whole south east area. As with other groups, there are sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south east area includes:
For this group the variety of ritual activity is not high, although there are interesting examples of deliberate fragmentary skull deposits with the cremations at 1411 Harrold Pit C, and the mandible deposits at 1296 The Caburn. The use of these parts has been a consistent feature through all periods. 1229 Frilford in some respects has features reminiscent of the shrines at 1332 Uley. The enclosure, the infant burial, the pit with objects buried separately and the non-occupational appearance of the interior of the enclosure at Frilford are all suggestive.
[SE MVD] Disposal process
Of the 20 sites, 8 were cremation only sites, 6 inhumation only and 6 had both processes. This was a very different pattern of incidence from those of the other two groups, where evidence for both disposal process on one site was absent in both cases. However, the preferential difference on this occasion is absent in the same disposal group for the period in the other two areas, which is unusual. The cremation sites tend to be in the lower Thames Valley and east Kent, and the inhumation sites in the western part of the south east area.
Single phase rites occurred on all sites in this group, although there are several settlement sites where a multiple phase rite may have occurred: 324 Barton Court Farm (odd adult long bones in ditches), 1015 Cassington Big Enclosure (scapula in ditch), 1064 Ashville Trading Estate (disarticulated infant, odd human bone finds), 1296 The Caburn (bone fragments), 1386 Rye Close Field (bone fragments), 1411 Harrold Pit C (parts of body saved from cremation) and 1520 Copse Farm (bone fragments in ditches). However, almost every settlement encountered has contained such fragmentary remains in pits, ditches or in hut and open areas, and some of these finds may be the result of the casual shifting of settlement debris about, or other ritual acts rather than deliberate multiple phase disposal rites.
[SE MVD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at these sites: 1186 Puddlehill (deposits 3-6), 1283 Swarling (graves 3, 7, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17), 1296 The Caburn, and 1438 Bancroft (implied).
[SE MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
None are recorded in this period.
[SE MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 20 multiple varied disposal sites, 11 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 7 of them also have accompanied burials. This leaves just 4 sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposal sites mirror the group's general distribution. Three of the unaccompanied disposals were clearly identified as male, and seven as female.
One site with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 16 accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (7 of these also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually, there are these incidences: personal decor (10 sites), personal craft (1), excellence (6), token (2), animal part (5), domestic refuse (3), personal utensil (12) and articulated animal parts (1). Association of the personal decor items with personal utensils is the most frequent.
The four clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with: 2 fibulae, sheep bones, bowl, flask, cup and bowl rim (1 case), faience melon bead, sheep mandible, globular beaker (1), avian leg(?), incomplete bowl or jar (1), and 2 copper alloy mounts, articulated pig and sheep bones, cup, girth beaker, barrel jar, pedestalled bowl (1).
The two clearly identified female accompanied disposals are associated with: horse or ox rib (1 case), and a funerary urn (1).
Three of the four sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals. This continues the pattern of non-discrimination of ritual activity among all disposals.
[SE MVD] Elite burial rites?
The pattern of burial groups in this period is much as before, whichever disposal type is considered. Settlements continue to provide examples of the pit or ditch disposal, sometimes complete and in settings suggesting a particular use of the burial (324 Barton Court Farm where there was a hut disposal, met occasionally before in previous periods, and 1015 Cassington Big Enclosure where a female was buried in a ditch terminal). At other times the disposals have an ambivalence, occurring partially, casually or in domestic refuse associations that only rarely can be clearly identified as deliberate (1520 Copse Farm, for example). At yet other times the disposal resembles those of the Iron Age settlement pits.
Elsewhere there are organised flat cemeteries of varying size, with the mixture encountered before of grave good accompaniment ranging from the very modest to the moderately generous (say, 2-3 vessels) on the same site. A clear example of such burials appears to be that at 1552 Westhampnett Bypass, where there were 150 burials with the remains usually placed on the bottom of a small circular grave accompanied by one or two pots, and brooches accompanying some. It is again not uncommon for there to be animal bone accompanying disposals, but the very large separate pit containing such bone at 1271 Aylesford was unusual. At some cemeteries there also appear to be groupings of graves.
The site at 1229 Frilford is the nearest that the group comes to possessing a ritual site, the disposals there possibly being associated with the structure's purpose as they might have been at other shrines. How the disposals were selected is a matter of speculation. Another ritual deposit may have been that at 1296 The Caburn, where a mandible was placed at the bottom of a square pit which was then filled with mould, chalk with sherds, a loom-weight, an iron dagger blade, and a quern fragment.
The rich burials in this group are not dependent on impressive containers but on extensive collections of artefacts in accompaniment. The three burials X, Y and Z at 1271 Aylesford were very richly furnished with bronze and pottery items in a cemetery containing at least 6 and possibly 14 much more modestly accompanied disposals. At 1275 Radnor Park four urned cremations contained bronze and silver personal decor goods. Grave 13 at 1283 Swarling contained similar objects to the richer graves at 1271 Aylesford, and there were other more modestly furnished graves there. At 1438 Bancroft burial 4 contained a large collection of mixed goods. Although therefore there are burials of people with wealth to associate with their disposal, in this group they do not attain the level or isolation of those at 425 Stanfordbury.
[SE MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 324 Barton Court Farm (250bc, ad120).
[SE MVD] Sites without disposals
No sites are recorded for this period.
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