List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1: The Netherlands in the Roman period, with military forts along the River Rhine and the Dutch River Area.

Figure 2: A modern river unchanged by dikes and other human interference: River Omolon in Russia. Photo J.A. de Raad.

Figure 3: Schematic overview of the riverine landscape (after Berendsen and Stouthamer 2001, fig. 3.4).

Figure 4: The area around Tiel-Passewaaij, showing the different streamridges and the micro-region of Tiel-Passewaaij. Streamridge 1 became inactive during the Roman period. Streamridge 2 was inactive from the Iron Age, and streamridge 3 from the Bronze Age. The older streamridges remained as a slightly higher section in the surrounding flood basin.

Figure 5: The Dutch River Area in the Middle Roman period, with the location of Tiel-Passewaaij and other settlements mentioned in the text (after Vossen 2007).1: Tiel-Passewaaij; 2: Geldermalsen-Hondsgemet; 3: Wijk bij Duurstede-De Horden; 4: Kesteren-De Woerd; 5: Houten-Tiellandt.

Figure 6: Plan of a farmhouse in Passewaaijse Hogeweg during excavation. The people represent the main posts of the building.

Figure 7: Excavation trenches in Tiel-Passewaaij, with all archaeological features. 1: Settlement Oude Tielseweg; 2: Cemetery; 3: Settlement Passewaaijse Hogeweg. A: Excavation trenches; B: Grave structures; C: Settlement features; D: Farmhouses; E: Enclosure ditches; F: Residual channel (Roymans et al. 2007).

Figure 8: A reconstruction of the settlement Passewaaijse Hogeweg in phases 3 (top) and 4 (bottom). Illustration M.H. Kriek, ACVU-HBS.

Figure 9: Archaeological features per phase in Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg. Part of the cemetery is visible in the left of the illustration. A and B: phase 2; C: phase 3.1; D: phase 3.2; E: phase 4.1; F: phase 4.2; G and H: phase 5-6; I: phase 7 (Heeren 2006, plate 2).

Figure 10: Waterlogged top of a kernel of barley. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 11: Charred grains of barley. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 12: Threshing cereals with cattle in Ethiopia. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 13: Pollen from oak. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 14: Animal bone spectrum for cattle, sheep, pig and horse per phase for Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg, based on the numbers of identified fragments. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 15: Animal bone spectrum for cattle, sheep, pig and horse per phase for Tiel-Oude Tielseweg, based on the numbers of identified fragments. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 16: Interactive map of land use in Tiel-Passewaaij. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 17: Transition from streamridge to flood basin of the River Narew in Poland. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 18: Cattle in a flood basin of the River Narew in Poland. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 19: Mineralised manure from Kesteren-De Woerd. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 20: Nature reserve Millingerwaard, adjoining the River Rhine. While not strictly a flood basin, the area is not diked and is therefore influenced by river flooding. Photo M. Groot.

Figure 21: River Kloostri with levees and flood basins in Estonia. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 22: Woodland on a levee of the River Prypjat in Belarus. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 23: River Prypjat in Belarus. Photo L.I. Kooistra

Figure 24: Fishing equipment in the flood basin of the River Prypjat in Belarus. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 25: Plans of two farmhouses from Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg. House A dates to phase 3 and house B to phase 4. The grey areas are phosphate stains (Heeren 2006, fig. 5.1 and 5.2).

Figure 26: Plans of four outbuildings from Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg. Building C is a typical small granary. Buildings A and B are large granaries. Building D is a stable (Heeren 2006, fig. 5.3 and 5.4).

Figure 27: Reconstruction of a farmhouse from the Roman period. While the plan of this house is not typical for the Dutch River Area, the construction and materials are similar. Illustration M.H. Kriek, ACVU-HBS.

Figure 28: Modern pigs in India, similar in appearance to pigs from the Roman Dutch River Area. Photo M. Groot.

Figure 29: Enclosure ditches in Tiel-Passewaaij from the period AD 50-150 (after Heeren 2006, fig. 5.7).

Figure 30: Excavation plan of the cremation cemetery in Tiel-Passewaaij. The colours of the grave ditches indicate the phases to which they date. Orange: AD 60-90; Red: AD 90-150; Purple: AD 150-200; Blue: AD 200-260 (Aarts and Heeren 2007).

Figure 31: A reconstruction of the different contexts in the cemetery. 1: cremation grave; 2: animal burial; 3: original ground surface; 4: ceremonial pit; 5: grave ditch. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 32: Animals in funerary ritual in Tiel-Passewaaij: a reconstruction. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 33: Cattle used for ploughing with an ard in Ethiopia. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 34: Cow dung patties used for fuel in India. Photo M. Groot.

Figure 35: Mortality profiles for cattle in rural production (Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg) and urban and military consumption sites (Nijmegen-Maasplein, Nijmegen-castra, Nijmegen-canabae) (Lauwerier 1988; Filean 2006). Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 36: Mortality profile for cattle per phase in Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg, based on tooth wear (Grant 1982). n is the number of mandibles for which tooth wear has been assessed. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 37: Sheep in a modern 'wet' area in the Netherlands. Photo L.I. Kooistra

Figure 38: Mortality profiles for sheep in Tiel-Passewaaij (Passewaaijse Hogeweg), phases 2 (50 BC - AD 50) and 3 (AD 40-140). n is the number of mandibles for which tooth wear has been assessed. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 39: Species composition in 2nd-century rural settlements in the Dutch River Area with a high percentage of horse bones. PHW: Tiel Passewaaij (Passewaaijse Hogeweg; Groot 2008a); WDDH: Wijk bij Duurstede-De Horden (Laarman 1996b); EW: Ewijk (Lauwerier 1988); GLM: Geldermalsen-Hondsgemet (Groot 2009); WES: Oss-Ussen Westerveld (Lauwerier and IJzereef 1998); HOU8: Houten site 8A (de Vries and Laarman 2000); KEST: Kesteren-De Woerd (Zeiler 2001); HUIA: Huissen-Loostraat site A (Groot 2008c). n is the total number of identified fragments. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 40: Mortality profile for horses in Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg in the Roman period. n is the number of mandibles and maxillae for which an age could be established. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 41: Konik horses in a nature reserve (Lentevreugd) in the Netherlands. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 42: Antler base from Passewaaijse Hogeweg. Photo ACVU-HBS.

Figure 43: Cereal spectrum in the Middle Roman period in Tiel-Passewaaij (TPW), Geldermalsen-Hondsgemet (GH), Kesteren-de Woerd (KdW) and 15 settlements in the Dutch River Area (DRA). Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 44: Emmer wheat. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 45: Barley. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 46: Cultivated oat. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 47: Charred chaff remains of emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon). Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 48: Modern Celtic beans (Vicia faba var. minor). Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 49: Mineralised Celtic beans (Vicia faba var. minor) found in one of the Roman rural settlements in the coastal area of the Netherlands. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 50: Waterlogged flax (Linum usitatissimum) seed and fragments of capsules. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 51: Waterlogged perianth of beet (Beta vulgaris) found in one of the Roman settlements in the Dutch River Area. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 52: Waterlogged seeds of henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) found in one of the Roman settlements in the Dutch River Area. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 53: Modern vegetable garden in the Royal Horticultural Society garden at Rosemoor, Devon (UK). Photo M. Groot.

Figure 54: Waterlogged seeds of elder (Sambucus nigra). Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 55: Waterlogged stones of damsons (Prunus domestica subsp. insititia. Photo BIAX Consult.

Figure 56: Hayland in the flood basin of the River Pripyat in Belarus. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 57: Arable fields on the highest part and grassland on the lowest part of the levee of the River Pripyat in Belarus. Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 58: Bar graph showing the representation of four categories of plants in Tiel Passewaaij (TP), Geldermalsen-Hondsgemet (GM) and Kesteren-De Woerd (KdW). Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 59: Withy-bed in a nature reserve (Eschplaat). Photo L.I. Kooistra.

Figure 60: Willow baskets from Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg (Heeren 2006, plate 6).

Figure 61: Model of the main land use activities of the inhabitants of an average rural settlement in the Roman Period in the Dutch River Area. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU.

Figure 62: Reconstruction of the land use around Tiel Passewaaij. Illustration Mikko Kriek, ACVU-HBS.

List of Tables

Table 1: Chronology of Tiel-Passewaaijse Hogeweg and Tiel-Oude Tielseweg.

Table 2: Elements used in house construction, and their provenance.

Table 3: Wild mammals and birds in Tiel-Passewaaij. PHW: Passewaaijse Hogeweg; OTW: Oude Tielseweg. NISP is the total number of identified specimens.

Table 4: Species of fish found in Passewaaijse Hogeweg, with the phases in which they occur and the total number of fragments.

Table 5: Plants found in Roman settlements in the Dutch River Area, which could be grown in vegetable gardens. TPW = Tiel-Passewaaij; GH = Geldermalsen-Hondsgemet; KdW = Kesteren-De Woerd; HT = Houten-Tiellandt; WbD = Wijk bij Duurstede-De Horden.

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