Cite this as: Root, C., Kay, J.E., Kreike-Martin, N., Weng, C., Madsen, H. and Pare, R. 2024 The Agency of Civilians, Women, and Britons in the Public Votive Epigraphy of Roman Britain, Internet Archaeology 67. https://doi.org/10.11141/ia.67.17
The Roman army has long been understood to have been centrally responsible for the spread of Roman religious material culture and practices in Britain, especially in public epigraphic contexts. The epigraphic corpus, especially Roman Inscriptions of Britain (RIB) (Vanderbilt 2022), provides some of the best evidence for understanding what role individual agency played in religious practice, because many of the inscriptions record the occupation, gender, or origins of the dedicator. Despite the fact that public religious epigraphy in Roman Britain is overwhelmingly militarised and masculine, as well as an imported technology of conquest, it still offers a unique opportunity to investigate alternative perspectives. We examine how the worship of native deities survived in public Latin epigraphy, either on their own or in a syncretic context, and how civilians, women, and local Britons participated in this new technology of worship, especially relating to newly imported deities. We track three large categories: inscriptions to deities imported from the Mediterranean with the Roman conquest of Britain; inscriptions to deities whose origin or cult centre likely lies in Britain or the north-west provinces (e.g. Germania, Gallia and Hispania); and inscriptions that invoke deities from both cultural categories, especially through processes of syncretism and cross-cultural exchange. We catalogued, restructured, and interrogated the data from the RIB Online database, examining the geographical context and textual contents of the public religious inscriptions from Volumes I and III. In agreement with previous studies of military religion, we find that civilians and local Britons were not prolific contributors to the public Latin epigraphic tradition and imperial soldiers held primary agency in inscriptions to local deities on the island. This influence is particularly visible in the militarised area around Hadrian's Wall, where Roman soldiers created more religious inscriptions than dedicators from any other occupation - a pattern found throughout the province. The agency of civilians, women, and people from Britain, however, changed according to the cultural affiliation of the deities to whom they dedicated, as well as the location of the inscriptions. People dedicating to deities whose worship was focused in Britain or north-western Europe were less likely to include information about their occupations (especially military connections) than were people dedicating to deities imported from the Roman Mediterranean (including Eastern mystery cults). On inscriptions that involved religious syncretism, civilians (and especially men, who were overwhelmingly responsible for this category) were particular about how this syncretism was executed in the text, always incorporating interpretatio and making no inscriptions that keep the deities' identities separate. Significantly, while Hadrian's Wall seems to have acted as the cradle of religious epigraphy in Roman Britain, civilians (and therefore, women) did not create syncretic epigraphy in this area.
Charlotte A. Root
Princeton University
Corresponding author: Janet E. Kay
jekay@princeton.edu
Princeton University
Noah Kreike-Martin
Princeton University
Cathleen Weng
Princeton University
Heather Madsen
Princeton University
Rhiannon Pare
Princeton University
Figure 1: Map showing all known locations for the inscriptions studied, marked to the nearest modern town
Figure 2: Pie Chart of all 228 deities commemorated in the 838 inscriptions, according to cultural affiliation of the deities (for list, see Appendix 1)
Figure 3: Bar chart showing the most popular deities in the MED, LBNE, and Syncretic Deities categories
Figure 4a: Map of all religious inscriptions (n=838)
Figure 4b: Map of all MED inscriptions (n=502)
Figure 4c: Map of all LBNE inscriptions (n=197)
Figure 4d: Map of all SYN inscriptions (n=87)
Figure 4e: Map of all UNK inscriptions (n=52)
Figure 5a: The complete map of all 838 religious RIB inscriptions studied in this article, clustered in order to be comparable with the complete RIB data shown to the right
Figure 5b: The complete map of all inscriptions (n=959) categorised in the RIB Online database as 'Text Type: Religion' and 'Object Type: Monumental' (as of 22 September 2024). Inscriptions are clustered because that is the default format from the RIB Online database (Vanderbilt 2022)
Figure 6: Bar chart showing relative proportions of whether inscriptions were found at forts, by each inscription type
Figure 7a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of all inscriptions found at fort sites according to inscription type
Figure 7b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of all inscriptions found at non-fort sites according to inscription type
Figure 8a: Map of inscriptions found at fort sites (n=746)
Figure 8b: Map of inscriptions not found at fort sites (n=92)
Figure 9a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all religious inscriptions (n=838)
Figure 9b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all MED inscriptions (n=502)
Figure 9c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all LBNE inscriptions (n=197)
Figure 9d: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all SYN inscriptions (n=87)
Figure 9e: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all UNK inscriptions (n=52)
Figure 10a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by soldiers, according to inscription type (n=361)
Figure 10b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by civilians, according to inscription type (n=56)
Figure 10c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by [soldiers + civilians], according to inscription type (n=3)
Figure 10d: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by people of unknown occupation, according to inscription type (n=419)
Figure 11: Bar chart showing the five most popular deities for soldiers, civilians, and dedicators with unknown occupation
Figure 12a: Distribution map of all inscriptions by soldiers (n=361)
Figure 12b: Distribution map of all inscriptions by civilians (n=56)
Figure 12c: Distribution map of all inscriptions by [soldiers + civilians] (n=3)
Figure 12d: Distribution map of all inscriptions by people with unknown occupation (n=418)
Figure 13a: Distribution map of all MED inscriptions by soldiers alone (n=259)
Figure 13b: Distribution map of all MED inscriptions by civilians alone (blue, n=33) and [soldier + civilian] (purple, n=3)
Figure 13c: Distribution map of all MED inscriptions by people of unknown occupation (n=207)
Figure 14a: Distribution map of all LBNE inscriptions by soldiers (n=51)
Figure 14b: Distribution map of all LBNE inscriptions by civilians (n=12)
Figure 14c: Distribution map of all LBNE inscriptions by people of uncertain occupation (n=134)
Figure 15a: Distribution map of all SYN inscriptions by soldiers (n=38)
Figure 15b: Distribution map of all SYN inscriptions by civilians (n=8)
Figure 15c: Distribution map of all SYN inscriptions by people of uncertain occupation (n=41)
Figure 16a: Distribution map of all UNK inscriptions by soldiers (n=13)
Figure 16b: Distribution map of all UNK inscriptions by civilians (n=3)
Figure 16c: Distribution map of all UNK inscriptions by people of uncertain occupation (n=36)
Figure 17a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators’ gender for all religious inscriptions (n=838)
Figure 17b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators'’' gender for all MED inscriptions (n=502)
Figure 17c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators’ gender for all LBNE inscriptions (n=197)
Figure 17d: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators’ gender for all SYN inscriptions (n=87)
Figure 17e: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators’ gender for all UNK inscriptions (n=52)
Figure 18a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by men, according to inscription type (n=561)
Figure 18b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by women, according to inscription type (n=21)
Figure 18c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by [men + women], according to inscription type (n=10)
Figure 18d: Pie chart showing relative percentages of inscriptions dedicated by people of unknown gender, according to inscription type (n=247)
Figure 19: Bar chart of the most popular deities attested on inscriptions by women, comparing dedications by women alone and dedications made with the collaborative efforts of men and women
Figure 20a: Map of all inscriptions by men (n=561)
Figure 20b: Map of all inscriptions by women (pink) (n=21) and [men + women] (purple) (n=10)
Figure 20c: Map of all inscriptions by people whose gender cannot be determined (n=246)
Figure 21a: Map of all MED inscriptions by men (n=343)
Figure 21b: Map of all MED inscriptions by women (pink) (n=13) and [men + women] (purple) (n=10)
Figure 21c: Map of all MED inscriptions by people whose gender cannot be determined (n=140)
Figure 22a: Map of all LBNE inscriptions by men (n=123)
Figure 22b: Map of all LBNE inscriptions by women (pink) (n=5) and [men + women] (purple) (n=3)
Figure 22c: Map of all LBNE inscriptions by people whose gender cannot be determined (n=66)
Figure 23a: Map of all SYN inscriptions by men (n=72)
Figure 23b: Map of all SYN inscriptions by women (pink) (n=2) and [men + women] (purple) (n=1)
Figure 23c: Map of all SYN inscriptions by people whose gender cannot be determined (n=12)
Figure 24a: Map of all UNK inscriptions by men (n=23)
Figure 24b: Map of all UNK inscriptions by women (pink) (n=1)
Figure 24c: Map of all UNK inscriptions by people whose gender cannot be determined (n=28)
Figure 25: Bar chart showing ways women identify themselves in religious epigraphy, including: one or two names, mothers and daughters inscribing together, if they made inscriptions in collaboration with men, and if they included their relationships to men in their families
Figure 26: Pie chart showing the relative types of inscriptions by the collective total of people (n=48) who included their location of origin in their religious inscriptions
Figure 27: Pie chart showing the origins of people who included such information in their religious inscriptions (n=48)
Figure 28: Bar chart that shows relative counts of origins within inscription cultural categories
Figure 29a: Map of all inscriptions where origins were specifically mentioned (n=48)
Figure 29b: Map of MED inscriptions for which origins were recorded (n=27) - Dot colours represent origins: red for Mediterranean, green for Britannia, blue for North-western Provinces, purple for [North-western Provinces + Britannia], yellow for Unknown
Figure 29c: Map of LBNE inscriptions for which origins were recorded (n=11) - Dot colours represent origins: red for Mediterranean, green for Britannia, blue for North-western Provinces, purple for [North-western Provinces + Britannia], yellow for Unknown
Figure 29d: Map of SYN (n=9) and UNK (n=1) (RIB 2151 at Castlecary on the Antonine Wall) inscriptions for which origins were recorded (n=27) - Dot colours represent origins: red for Mediterranean, green for Britannia, blue for North-western Provinces, purple for [North-western Provinces + Britannia], yellow for Unknown
Figure 30a: Map of dedications by people from Mediterranean (n=13) - Dot colours represent inscription types: orange for MED, green for LBNE, blue for SYN, yellow for Unknown
Figure 30b: Map of dedications by people from Britannia (n=9) - Dot colours represent inscription types: orange for MED, green for LBNE, blue for SYN, yellow for Unknown
Figure 30c: Map of dedications by people from North-western Provinces (n=25) - Dot colours represent inscription types: orange for MED, green for LBNE, blue for SYN
Figure 30d: Map of dedications by people from [Britannia + North-western Provinces] (n=1, RIB 3332 at Vindolanda) - Dot colours represent inscription types: orange for MED
Figure 31: Pie chart showing relative percentages of the three different subtypes that make up the total of SYN inscriptions (n=87) (Syncretic Deities, Dual Cultural inscriptions, and Dually Syncretic inscriptions)
Figure 32: Pie chart showing relative percentages of how often individual MED deities appear in SD pairings (n=35) within the dataset
Figure 33: Pie chart showing relative percentages of how often individual LBNE deities appear in SD pairings (n=35) within the dataset - The deities shaded red on the right half of the chart were paired with Mars. Brigantia and the Quadriviae were paired with Caelestis and are shaded purple. The three blue-shaded deities on the left were paired with Apollo, and the two yellow deities above them were paired with Hercules
Figure 34: Horizontal bar chart showing number of times an individual MED deity was invoked in the 28 Dual Cultural inscriptions
Figure 35: Horizontal bar chart showing number of times an individual LBNE deity was invoked in the 28 Dual Cultural inscriptions
Figure 36a: Map of all inscriptions to Syncretic Deities (n=41)
Figure 36b: Map of all Dual Cultural inscriptions (n=28)
Figure 36c: Map of all Dually Syncretic inscriptions (n=18)
Figure 37a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all Syncretic Deity inscriptions (n=41)
Figure 37b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all Dual Cultural inscriptions (n=28)
Figure 37c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of occupations of dedicators for all Dually Syncretic inscriptions (n=18)
Figure 38a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of SYN subcategory dedications made by soldiers (n=38)
Figure 38b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of SYN subcategory dedications made by civilians (n=8)
Figure 38c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of SYN subcategory dedications made by people of unknown occupation (n=38)
Figure 39a: Map of all Syncretic Deity inscriptions dedicated by soldiers (n=13)
Figure 39b: Map of all Syncretic Deity inscriptions dedicated by civilians (n=5)
Figure 39c: Map of all Syncretic Deity inscriptions dedicated by people of unknown occupation (n=23)
Figure 40: Map of all Dual Cultural inscriptions dedicated by soldiers (n=20) (red) and people of unknown occupation (n=8) (yellow)
Figure 41: Map of all Dually Syncretic inscriptions dedicated by soldiers (n=5) (red), civilians (n=3) (blue), and people of unknown occupation (n=10) (yellow)
Figure 42: Chart showing the counts of the three different SYN subcategories dedicated by people of different genders
Figure 43a: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators' gender for all Syncretic Deity inscriptions (n=41)
Figure 43b: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators' gender for all Dual Cultural inscriptions (n=28)
Figure 43c: Pie chart showing relative percentages of dedicators’ gender for all Dually Syncretic inscriptions (n=18)
Figure 44a: Map of all Syncretic Deity inscriptions dedicated by men (n=33) (blue), women (n=1) (pink), [men + women] (n=1) (purple), and people of unknown gender (n=6) (yellow)
Figure 44b: Map of all Dual Cultural inscriptions dedicated by men (n=33) (blue) and people of unknown gender (n=6) (yellow)
Figure 44c: Map of all Dually Syncretic inscriptions dedicated by men (n=33) (blue), women (n=1) (pink), and people of unknown gender (n=6) (yellow)
Figure 45a: Map of all SYN inscriptions showing origins of dedicators (n=9) - Dot colours represent dedicators' origins: red for Mediterranean, green for Britannia, blue for North-western Provinces
Figure 45b: Map of all Syncretic Deity inscriptions showing origins of dedicators (n=2) - Dot colours represent dedicators' origins: red for Mediterranean and blue for North-western Provinces
Figure 45c: Map of all Dual Cultural inscriptions showing origins of dedicators (n=2) - Dot colours represent dedicators' origins: blue for North-western Provinces
Figure 45d: Map of all Dually Syncretic inscriptions showing origins of dedicators (n=5) - Dot colours represent dedicators' origins: red for Mediterranean, green for Britannia, and blue for North-western Provinces
Figure 46: RIB 191, bronze plate dedicated to Mars Medocius of the Campeses by Lossio Veda, a Caledonian. Currently displayed in the British Museum (1892,0421.1), originally found in Colchester. Photo by C. Root
Table 1: Total counts of each inscription type (MED, LBNE, SYN, and UNK), including counts of each SYN subtype (SD, DCI, DSI). Each type is broken down by occupation and gender. Italic percentages represent the row total, not the 838 total.
Table 2: Breakdown of inscription categories according to whether or not they were found at fort sites
Table 3: Cultural types of inscription according to the recorded origins of the dedicators. Percentages in italics represent the percentage of the row total
Table 4: Inscriptions by people who specifically mention geographical origins or ethnic or tribal affiliation
Table 5: Depicts the breakdown of SYN inscription subcategories according to whether or not they were found at fort sites
Table 6: SYN sub-types of inscription according to the recorded origins of the dedicators
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