Cremation and inhumation
The sites using solely cremation and solely inhumation are evenly distributed within the general concentration described above. There are 7 cremation only sites, against 28 for inhumation only and no sites with both methods on them, a bias which will appear uniformly across all areas in this period. Single disposals use inhumation only twice as often as cremation, and indeed cremation appears to survive largely in this group since the multiple disposal groups use inhumation almost exclusively.
Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal site, but is not frequently observed in the surviving record. At 3 instances on 11 sites, it is about 2-3 times as frequent as occurrence on single disposal sites (2 occurrences on 18 sites), and does not appear on multiple similar disposal sites.
SW SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 35 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows, cairns, cists, grave pits, reused storage pits, fortified settlements, and open settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (4), mound (4), pit (9), cairn (2), and cist (2), with no other forms appearing [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2001]. The most numerous type, comprising the nine pits, is widely spread within the Cotswold-Mendip region. Other numbers are too small to warrant distribution analysis. The variety is becoming minimal.
[SW SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was dominant in single disposals, all of the 18 sites using it. There were three sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references are included in descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at single disposal sites in the south west area includes:
What is directly associated with human disposal processes is minimal, but in a tradition.
[SW SD] Disposal process
Of the 35 sites, 7 were cremation only sites, 28 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites on evidence.
[SW SD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 396 Pentre Farm, 1423 Bristol 2, 1424 Bristol 3 and 1480 Little Solsbury Hill.
[SW SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There was no evidence for these structures.
[SW SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 18 single disposal sites ten have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed in the Mendip-South Cotswold region. None of these disposals was clearly identified as male, and one as female. Both sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the eight accompanied single disposals, items of personal decor occur three times, personal craft items twice, token deposits once, domestic refuse three times, personal utensils twice and objet trouvees once. Combinations of items are rare. The one clearly identified male disposal was associated with sherds. The two identifiable female accompanied disposals were associated with an urn (1 case), and domestic refuse (1).
[SW SD] Elite burial rites?
There is no evidence to suggest that monument type, the container for burial, disposal mode, phased rite or ritual activity point to a particular elite burial rite. There are a variety of disposal treatments, from the formal to the casual, and the accompanying grave goods provide the clearest distinguishing features as before. Cist burials at 1210 King's Road, Clevedon and 1216 Trevone contain inhumations with more elaborate personal decor goods, and the primary cremation goods at 1424 Bristol 3 include a bridle cheekpiece. Elsewhere goods are non-existent or minimal.
[SW SD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south west area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 271 Tickenham 1 (715bc), and 396 Pentre Farm (450bc).
[SW MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The six sites are distributed among the categories of open and fortified settlements, grave pits, and caves. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal: open ground (2), pit (4), with no other type used [code 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2002]. They occur in a wide scatter across the northern half of the south west area.
[SW MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in multiple similar disposals, all sites using it. There were no sites with significant evidence for ritual activity, but there were two other sites where some ritual activity of other kinds took place:
The variety of overtly identifiable ritual activity is negligible.
[SW MSD] Disposal process
Of the six sites, one was a cremation only site, and five inhumation only. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. However, the amount of casual fragmentary human skeletal material found at 1254 Meare Village West suggests that, at that site at least, the true case may be otherwise. It might also add support to the proposition that on settlement sites there was a part of the disposal process that involved retention of the body or its parts for a time on the settlement or close to it as part of a longer and more complex sequence of disposal or related activity. It is hard otherwise to explain the not infrequent occurrences in the past of such part skeletal material on settlement sites, and the occurrence at similar sites elsewhere in this period. The cave deposits may have been part of this pattern of activity, possibly as one variety of open excarnation sites.
[SW MSD] Tokenism
No unambiguous token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at in this group.
[SW MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
[SW MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the six multiple similar disposal sites, five contained burials without grave goods. Of about 24 individuals represented, one could be positively identified as male and two as female.
Turning to the one accompanied multiple similar disposal site, at 1307 Ogmore Down the two inhumations were accompanied by bronze helmets with silver and red enamel decoration, and small bands of twisted gold and silver wire, associated with 2 brass skull-caps, fragments of a bronze chain, and 2 or more barbed daggers. They were not identified by sex.
[SW MSD] Elite burial rites?
With the exception of 1307 Ogmore Down just noted, there is no special evidence for elite treatment. Most of the disposals are either in ditches or pits, or are casually disposed. The rich goods accompanying the inhumations at Ogmore Down appear to indicate the burial of a wealthy warrior elite, in principle like the rich burials of other presumably higher ranked individuals encountered in earlier periods.
[SW MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals in the south west area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1141 Roughground Farm (180bc) and 1254 Meare Lake Village West (range 860-130bc).
[SW MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The eleven sites are distributed among the categories of fortified settlements, pits or flat graves, cist cemeteries, and open settlement sites. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal: open ground (5), mound (1), pit (8), cist (2) and no others [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2009]. The largest group, comprising the eight pits, is widely distributed.
[SW MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was completely dominant in multiple varied disposals, all sites containing disposals using it, and none seemingly using a multiple phase rite. However, several sites have disposals whose condition might suggest otherwise on further consideration.
There were three sites with evidence for ritual activity. As in the other groups, there are other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south west area includes:
The growth in the amount of settlement or settlement related disposals and their frequent association with pits used for storage or for domestic refuse is notable. The ritual activity seen in previous periods appears to have continued the decline which began in the last period. A new type of activity, the apparent votive deposit of a disposal under ramparts, has emerged, but this might be regarded as an extension of the placing of human remains in post-holes, in pits, under hearths or in ditches which have occurred in the past. The occasional association of human remains with key structures or locations is by now an established phenomenon.
[SW MVD] Disposal process
All eleven sites used inhumation only. This was a different pattern from that of single disposals, which used cremation once for every two incidences of inhumation. The multiple similar disposals, on the other hand, followed the multiple varied disposals in favouring inhumation.
Single phase rites occurred on all of the sites in this group. At some sites there was evidence for the possibility that the body had been first exposed or otherwise received prior treatment. At 307 Coronation Road, Weston-super-Mare the child cranium in Pit 2 suggests more than one phase of disposal for that body. Casual finds of part skeletal remains and the burial of part skeletal remains in pits at the settlement sites in the group might imply that human bone underwent phases on those sites, some of it being lost in the process, some being formally buried. At 1177 Harlyn Bay B the disarticulated (or disarticulatable) condition of bone on deposition is implied by the bone manipulation which occurred in some graves, by the disordered state of other burials on deposition and by the small space into which yet others had been crammed. All this implies a probable exposure stage before deposit in the grave in the cemetery.
[SW MVD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 307 Coronation Road Weston-super-Mare, 1136 Bredon Hill Camp, and 1177 Harlyn Bay B.
[SW MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 1177 Harlyn Bay B there may have been a stone mortuary building associated with the earlier burials on the site.
[SW MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 11 multiple varied disposal sites, nine contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although five of those sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves just six sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. Because the record of accompanied or unaccompanied burials for 1177 Harlyn Bay B, which contained c. 100 persons, is inadequate no attempt is made to count total unaccompanied disposals, since even approximate figures cannot be derived. Three of the unaccompanied disposals elsewhere were clearly identified as male, and three as female.
All three sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the seven accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (five of these also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually there are the following incidences: personal decor (4 sites), personal craft (3), animal part (3), whole animal (2), domestic refuse (4), personal utensil (3) and objet trouvées (2). Near the heads of most of the 1177 Harlyn Bay B burials were little parcels of charcoal, flint and felspar, the materials used to make fire.
The nine clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with: sling shots, sherds, animal bone (1 case with 1 female below), bronze fibula, stone pebble with incised cross (1), frog skeleton, slate and spar pieces (1), iron spiral armlet (1), penannular brooch (1), two dogs (1), some pebbles (1), charred grain and slingstones (1), and animal bones and sherds (1).
The four female accompanied disposals are associated with: sling shots, sherds, animal bone (1 case with 1 male above), bronze hook (1), local pottery vessel (1), and a perforated boar's tusk (1).
Two of the three sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.
[SW MVD] Elite burial rites?
There is no special evidence for elite treatment. The cist cemetery at 1177 Harlyn Bay B appears to have contained graves with goods of excellence, but it is impossible to determine how many since some were removed and we do not know the detailed association of what remains. The cemetery also existed for some generations, according to the stratigraphy. Nonetheless, the cemetery is unusual for its size, orderliness, evidence for ritual and collection of grave goods, all of which may imply that it was for a particular social group.
Many of the disposals in this group are in settlement locations, being in domestic refuse pits, ditches or casual finds. The disposals are sometimes carefully set down, but on other occasions they are partial, or crudely disposed. At several sites the bodies have clearly been casualties of fighting, with sword cuts and limbs missing, but they have been treated in the same way as others. Sometimes there appears to have been selection for foundation burial. Otherwise there appears to be no elite burial rite for members of society of this period that can be identified here.
[SW MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south west area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1253 Meare Lake Village East (range 210-130bc).
[SW] Sites without disposals
There are no sites without disposals offering features of interest in the south west area in this period, but attention is drawn again to the activity which is recorded in non-human burial contexts at 1480 Little Solsbury Hill Camp where there were post-hole foundation sherd deposits, and a hearth foundation deposit of a young sheep or goat covering the toothed end of an antler embedded in clay mixed with earth, over the shaft of which a flat horizontal slab was placed. This was then luted with clay to 4 flat stones set in a crude semi-circular clay sausage, 2 vertically set and 2 sloping and supported by clay.
This elaborately constructed deposit has, in the animal burial, an echo of the hearth burial of a human at 1196 Trethellan Farm, but the remaining structure adds another example of a non-disposal deposit indicating a belief system which seems by no means simple.
The sites using solely cremation are few (5). Sites with solely inhumation (53) are widely distributed across the whole south area, with a possible absence in the narrow seaboard of the Southampton Basin. The sites with mixed methods (3) appear at either end of the Bradford-on-Avon to Winchester line formerly noted.
The different types of disposal sites have very slightly different characteristics of use. The single disposals and multiple similar disposal sites each use cremation compared with inhumation to a very slight degree (2:18 and 3:22 incidences respectively), but the multiple varied disposal sites include none with cremation alone. The last type, like the other two types, heavily favours inhumation alone, but unlike the others has sites (3) with both disposal methods.
Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal sites. At 7 instances on 13 sites, it is 9 times as frequent as on single disposal sites (once on 20 sites), and about one and a half times as frequent as on multiple similar disposal sites (7:25). This is a slightly different pattern from that met before in the south west area when multiple similar disposals had no ritual activity.
[S SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 20 sites are distributed among the categories of shafts, pit graves, open settlements, barrows, cist graves, and fortified settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (2), mound (4), pit (15), cist (1), platform or paving (1), urn (1), box (1), shaft (1), and no others [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2001]. Only the 15 pits in this analysis of container types are worth further examination for distribution, and they reflect the general distribution of the burial type.
[S SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and other special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in single disposals, 19 sites using it, and one using a multiple phase rite. There was only one site in the group with evidence for ritual activity and others with evidence suggesting that ritual activity of other kinds may have taken place, but the amount of activity is minimal.
[S SD] Disposal process
Of the 20 sites, 2 were cremation only sites, 18 were inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all but one sites. There was one site where there was a multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body before final deposition, but three others have possible indications of a multiple phase rite although these may be casual occurrences: 326 Cold Kitchen Hill (pierced human patella used as a spindle-whorl), 1537 Site BS/M57 Southern Feeder (part of body buried in a pit), 1202 Boscombe Down (broken human bone in grave fill) and 1676 Little Woodbury (part of child's jaw in a pit).
[S SD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 1537 Site BS/M57 Southern Feeder.
[S SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There is no evidence for these.
[S SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 20 single disposal sites, 11 have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals reflect the main disposal and container usage distributions. One of these unaccompanied disposals was clearly identified as male, and two as female.
Turning to the nine accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, representation is better than for some time: personal decor (1 case), personal craft (1), excellence (2), token (1), animal part (1), domestic refuse (4), personal utensil (4) and objet trouvée (1). Combinations were not frequent, with one case of personal craft, excellence and personal utensil in association.
The three clearly identified male disposals were associated with: a flower-pot vessel and a broken 8 point antler 1m long (1 case), a few flint flakes and a snail shell (1), and an iron tanged knife, iron sickle blade with flanged socket, and sherds (1).
The two accompanied burials clearly identified as female were associated with: bronze bracelet (1 case), and large fragments of pottery (1).
[S SD] Elite burial rites?
The main indicator of elite rite continues to be excellence of the goods deposited, with a dagger as an accompaniment in one case where also, unusually, a wooden box was the container.
[S SD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1449 Stonehenge Underpass (518bc).
[S MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 25 sites are distributed among the categories of ring ditches, barrows, enclosed settlements, cemeteries, pit graves, hill forts, urnfields, river sites and middens. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (5), mound (6), pit (17), cist (1), urn (2), urnfield (1) and no others [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2002].
The most frequent container, the pit, is distributed in a broad swathe across the middle of the south area from west Wiltshire to east Hampshire following the broad distribution of sites.
[S MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was fairly dominant in multiple similar disposals, 21 of the 25 sites using it, and four using the multiple phase rite. There were seven sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, all inhumation sites:
The variety of ritual activity is still minimal, but the common occurrence of human remains in both structured and casual contexts on settlement sites (fortified or not) adds more support to the proposition that these locations were important continuing foci of ritual concerning disposal and wider rites. The site at 1700 East Chisenbury Midden may provide important background for reconstruction of general processes connecting beliefs about fertility, death, and renewal with the human transitions through birth, life and death. Activity at the midden appears to have been more than casual dumping of domestic waste.
The midden site at 1703 Potterne, which overlaps in date with this period (see under 14/1300-8/700bc), has a similar rich domestic refuse deposit to which was added bronze items and items of personal decor (beads) and utensils. Skull fragments were also found within this midden.
[S MSD] Disposal process
Of the 25 sites, 3 were cremation only sites, 22 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at 21 sites. There were 11 sites where there was a possible multiple phase rite implied by the state of one or more bodies: 805 Highfield (bone fragments scattered in pits all over the site), 1314 Figsbury Rings (bone fragments in domestic refuse on ditch floor), 1316 Lidbury Camp (bone fragments in various locations), 1320 Swallowcliffe Down (bone fragments in pit), 1326 Little Somborne (bone fragments in pit), 1327 Old Down Farm (bone fragments in various locations), 1545 Ructalls Hill (bone fragments), 1700 East Chisenbury Midden, 1703 Potterne (skull fragments in midden), 1706 La Sagesse Convent (bone fragments in old watercourse), and 1710 Newton lane, Romsey (skull fragments in domestic refuse in old stream channel).
The now quite frequent finding of human bone fragments on settlement sites in casual contexts may not always imply the multiple phase rite. These bones may have been resulted from pit clearance (for example to transfer the pit contents to a communal midden). Whether the act of transfer included the extraction of human bone as part of the activity, or involved the continued incorporation of the bone with domestic refuse in the midden, each possibility has its own likely meaning as a process.
[S MSD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 685 Easton Down Ring Ditch R7 and 1700 East Chisenbury Midden.
[S MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
No mortuary houses were found but at 1535 Middle Barn Farm there were four possible stake=holes at the corners of the burial hollow.
[S MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 25 multiple similar disposal sites, 21 contain disposals with no accompanying grave goods (but on 8 of these sites there were also accompanied disposals). These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites have a general distribution. Six of these individuals were clearly identified as male, and five as female. It is not possible to give an approximate total of all unaccompanied individuals, as so many reports indicate partial remains in very broad descriptive terms. Five of the seven sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 12 accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (8 of the unaccompanied disposal sites also have accompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, there were these very few instances: personal craft (1 case), token (1), animal part (1), domestic refuse (7) and personal utensil (1). Combinations are minimal.
Seven individuals were identified as male among these, all in domestic refuse associations. The eight firmly identified females were accompanied by: two sherds of pottery (1, but dating not secure), domestic refuse (4), sandstone quern and domestic refuse (1), a small tubular ferrule (1), and carinated La Tène III bowl sherds (1, possibly accidental landslide burial).
Three of the seven sites with evidence for ritual activity have multiple similar accompanied disposals.
[S MSD] Elite burial rites?
This group has provided no evidence for any elite burial rite. Grave goods were again minimal, and the disposal process and rites provide no particular discriminators, although it might be possible to argue that a burial in an individual grave on a multiple similar disposal site marks the individual out as receiving more preferential treatment than one thrown into (or even carefully placed in) a domestic refuse pit. This may be to import invalid concepts of the values and implications of individual treatment. The steep rise in the association of domestic refuse with human disposals in several different burial contexts is notable.
[S MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1351 Barrow G Simon's Ground (604bc, 469bc).
[S MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 16 sites are distributed among the categories of settlements, barrows, hill forts, and grave pits. The majority are settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites used these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (5), mound (2), pit (13), urn (1), box (1), shaft (1), binding (2), wrapping (1), and stone arrangements (1), [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2009]. The pits follow the general distribution of the disposal type.
[S MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple varied disposals, 15 of the 16 sites containing disposals using it, and three also using a multiple phase rite. There were seven sites with evidence for ritual activity, on five occasions with single phase rite disposals, and twice jointly with the multiple phase rite disposals.
The seven sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur in the Windmill Hill-Dorchester oval from the Stonehenge area southwestwards. As often in the other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in this area includes:
The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is better represented in this group than in any other so far for the period, mainly due to 1198 Danebury, which provides a standard of evidence against which much that has been discovered, particularly at settlements, must be measured. At 1198 Danebury there appear to be processes centring on human body material which suggest links between the activities already identified separately (or occasionally in combination) at other sites concerning midden deposits, curation and conservation of human remains on or near settlements, movement of bodies in various states of decay between sites or on the same site, the importance of specific body parts, and use or abuse of the remains. These will be referred to later as contributing parts of a model of process.
[S MVD] Disposal process
Of the 16 sites, none were cremation only sites, three held inhumations and cremations, and 13 inhumations only. Single phase rites occurred on 15 sites in this group, and multiple phase rites certainly three times and very possibly more. At these sites there was evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment at: 306 Pimperne Down, 320 All Cannings Cross, 896 Winnall Down B, 1137 Hod Hill, 1173 Gussage All Saints, 1189 Allard's Quarry, 1190 Maiden Castle Fort, 1193 Portway Industrial Estate, 1198 Danebury (very many instances in reused storage pits), 1201 Fifield Bavant, and 1242 Budbury.
[S MVD] Tokenism
It is still difficult to identify token deposits even when so many part bodies or small bone fragments are now to be found at many sites. They are common occurrences in domestic refuse pits, and skull fragments are especially frequent: at 320 All Cannings Cross, for instance, all 34 bone fragments found were from skulls, were quite detached from one another, and all came from domestic refuse pits. This may suggest that their presence was a deliberate inclusion rather than casual. It continues a long tradition of the burial of skull fragments in pits or ditches as special deposits. These may be less the token deposits of bodies than the placing of a special body piece to enhance that with which it is to be associated. The finding of some fragments of cremated human bone in post-hole 169 at 981 Easton Lane supports the idea that cremation material was removed from either pyre site or cremation deposit to other locations, as evidence elsewhere has already indicated.
Token deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur unambiguously at: 306 Pimperne (probably ditch terminal ritual), 320 All Cannings Cross (pit deposit ritual?), 896 Winnall Down B, 1137 Hod Hill, 1173 Gussage All Saints, 1189 Allard's Pit, 1198 Danebury, and 1201 Fifield Bavant.
[S MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There were no mortuary houses or structures of the types met with in the previous periods. At 1208 Casterley Camp, the main pit (to which the annexe containing the disposals was attached) had a central post-hole.
[S MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 16 multiple varied disposal sites, 15 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 11 of these sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves four sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. The 15 unaccompanied disposal sites follow the general geographical distribution of the group. The record is too incomplete to calculate the approximate number of individuals buried without grave goods in this group (although the figure probably runs into several hundreds), but of the remains (parts or whole) identifiable by sex, 24 persons were clearly male and 21 female.
Seven sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
There were 12 sites with accompanied disposals, 11 of which had unaccompanied disposals present. The grave goods included: personal decor (7 sites with evidence), personal craft (2), excellence (3), token (1), animal part (4), whole animal (2), domestic refuse (7 sites, but individually the most frequent accompaniment especially on the settlement sites), personal utensil (2), and articulated animal parts (1).
The 22 clearly identified accompanied male disposals were associated with: domestic refuse (7 cases, but probably many more could be assumed), shale bracelet, bronze thumb ring (1), cattle scapula (1), sherds (1), burnt flints and chalk blocks (1), animal bones (7), iron brooch, cooking pot, antlers (1), loom-weight, spindle-whorl, antlers (1), antlers (1, with the last two), and a bronze tankard, sword and scabbard, horsebit and soke (1).
The 15 identified female accompanied disposals were associated with: domestic refuse (7 cases but probably many more could be assumed), glass and amber bead necklace, bronze ring, tin ring, bronze shoulder clip with iron tongue, and other identifiable iron objects (1), 2 chalk loom-weights, bone bobbin, latch-lifter, bucket handle and iron hoop, lock-ring, bronze spiral finger ring, horse, ox and pig jaws (1), sherds (1), animal bones (4), and a bronze bowl, bronze mirror, glass bead necklace (1).
Five sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.
[S MVD] Elite burial rites?
In the south area there is some slight material evidence for the existence of persons or groups coming under the narrow definition of elite (a dominant rich class) in the sites at 762 Wimborne St Giles 1, 1137 Hod Hill, and 1365 Lytchett Minster. There is evidence for the selection of other groups for special treatment at 1208 Casterley Camp (where a specially filled pit at one time holding a central post had a smaller annexe in which there were four inhumations covered by a pile of 14 red deer antlers) and a further set of selective treatments is seen in the rampart burials at several sites already noted above.
The observations of body treatment at 1198 Danebury show that some people were brought in from prior burial or exposure sites to be deposited in pits within the settlement - but not all, others being placed, sometimes carefully, sometimes haphazardly, as single stage deposits in the reused storage pits. It may be that it was less the case that a person was selected for this process, than that the bodily remains themselves (any body, each having the same characteristics for the purpose of process) are more the focus. There has been consistent evidence in every period covered to date for the use of human skeletal material (very often partial) in several different contexts, from small pits to ditches, to foundations of different kinds, and then to formal burial monument contexts. But these may not have been burial processes selected for an elite, but rather disposals selected for a burial process which may have purposes yet to be clearly defined.
[S MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 306 Pimperne Down (range 570-405bc), 896 Winnall Down (range 300-40bc), 1173 Gussage All Saints (range 510-70bc), and 1198 Danebury (range 580-40bc).
[S] Sites without disposals
There are no such Gazetteer sites with features of interest in the south area for this period.
[SE] Cremation and inhumation
The sites using solely cremation (6) focus in the northern sector (Oxfordshire [3], Bedfordshire and Berkshire) with one in Kent. Sites with solely inhumation (42) are broadly distributed, following the general pattern of the group. The sites with mixed methods (2) fall in Oxfordshire and Sussex. It is notable that the cremation sites are largely in the northern part of the south east area.
The different types of disposal sites have very slightly different frequencies of use of disposal method. The single disposals use cremation once for every four occasions that they use inhumation (5/23). The multiple similar disposal sites use cremation alone on one site only and inhumation only on the other 12 sites. The multiple varied disposal sites never use cremation alone, but use inhumation on 12 sites, and both methods together on two sites. This difference from the other types repeats that of the south area.
Ritual activity occurs more often on multiple varied disposal sites, repeating the pattern of previous periods. At 8 instances on 14 sites, it is 8 times more frequent than on multiple similar disposal sites (once on 13 sites), and about 6 times more frequent than on single disposal sites (2/23).
[SE SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 23 sites are distributed among the categories of barrows, open settlements, isolated pits, flat graves, ring ditches, and fortified settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (7), mound (2), pit (18), cairn (1), urn (2) and no others [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2001]. The pit distribution reflects the general distribution of the group, and the disposals laid upon the open ground are largely (4/7) in the Oxford-Abingdon area.
[SE SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in single disposals, all sites using it, and none on the initial analysis using a multiple phase rite. There were two sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity and a few others with evidence suggesting that ritual activity of other kinds may have taken place:
Compared to the south area, the variety of ritual activity is much less in this group, and is more comparable with the diminished level of the south west area.
[SE SD] Disposal process
Of the 23 sites, 5 were cremation only sites, 18 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites, although there were several sites where, on deeper examination, there might have been a multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body before final deposition: 927 Crundale Limeworks (disarticulated remains), 1012 Beard Mill A (disarticulation) and 1702 Harting Beacon (ditch terminal skull deposit).
[SE SD] Tokenism
It continues to be hard to distinguish casual from genuine token deposits, especially when they are of skull fragments in ditch contexts, which occur several times in this group. Only unambiguous deposits are noted, which may be too conservative an approach. Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 1446 Felmersham 2 and 1702 Harting Beacon.
[SE SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There was no evidence for these structures.
[SE SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 23 single disposal sites the majority (16) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals reflect the main disposal and container usage distributions. Five of these unaccompanied disposals were clearly identified as male, and three as female. One of the two sites with evidence for ritual activity contained an unaccompanied disposal.
Turning to the seven accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, there were these few deposits: personal craft (1), excellence (1?), token (1), animal part (2), domestic refuse (6) and personal utensils (2). Combinations were slight, domestic refuse twice with animal bone, and a personal utensil once with a personal craft item. One male was accompanied by a fragmentary rotary quernstone, and sherds, and another by fragments of four pottery vessels. It is possible that a third male, represented by the skull in the southern ditch terminal of 1702 Harting Beacon, might be seen as 'accompanied' by the two penannular gold ornaments in the opposite northern terminal, if these were deliberate deposits made in one event.
[SE SD] Elite burial rites?
There continues to be less evidence in this period to detect elite treatment of individuals at burial. The characteristics of disposals follow those which appear in the preceding two areas. The ditch terminal deposits at 1702 Harting Beacon may indicate elite treatment, but once again it may appear that the person (or the remains?) are being used for a purpose in this case which has a particular community significance. A purpose of this kind may indeed prove to be of the essence when it comes to discussion of why particular objects or whole or part bodies were disposed of in particular ways, associations or contexts. The circumstance of disposal (the place or the occasion) may be the determining feature, and the disposal activity not oriented to the person or the particular remains but rather to a belief about what the process was directed towards.
[SE SD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 103 Alfriston A (640bc), and 1139 Watchfield (300bc).
[SE MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 13 sites are distributed among the categories of open settlements, barrows, boundary ditches, and fortified settlements. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (8), mound (1), pit (6) and no other [codes 2151- 2173 in 1:1 combination with 2002]. The open ground disposals occur around Oxford and in north Buckinghamshire (a focal district in this group), and pit sites around Oxford.
[SE MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple similar disposals, 12 of the sites using it and one using a multiple phase rite. There was one site in the group with evidence for ritual activity, and several others with activity possibly of a ritual nature which have been included in the summary below:
The variety of ritual activity is very limited, a return to the common state for this disposal type.
[SE MSD] Disposal process
Of the 13 sites, one was cremation only, and 12 inhumation only, none having both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at 12 sites. There was one site where there was a definite multiple phase rite implied by the state of the body, and some others where multiple phase treatment was a possibility: 840 Mount Farm, 1064 Ashville Trading Estate, 1066 Purwell Farm, 1438 Bancroft, and 1463 Hartigans MK19.
[SE MSD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 840 Mount Farm(?), 1066 Purwell Farm, and 1463 Hartigans MK19. Once again there are examples of fragmentary human remains which are hard to categorise as other than casual. The excavator of 1495 Wittenham Clumps commented that the fragments there (not precisely located in the report) fit into the picture of the general scatter of odd human remains often found on Iron Age sites in southern England.
[SE MSD] Mortuary and other internal structure
There is no evidence for these.
[SE MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 13 multiple similar disposal sites, 12 contain disposals with no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites follow the general distribution of the group. The total unaccompanied disposals cannot be estimated for reasons given before, but where sex was determinable, one individual was clearly identified as male, and two as female.
Turning to the five accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (four unaccompanied disposal sites also have accompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, there were these few instances, perhaps the sparsest so far encountered: animal part (1 site) and domestic refuse (5). Three males were identified among these, all in one deposit and accompanied by domestic refuse. The two identifiable female disposals were accompanied by domestic refuse.
Only one site with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals.
[SE MSD] Elite burial rites?
This group has again provided no very convincing evidence for an elite burial rite, interpreted in the narrow sense. The depositions are similar to those in groups encountered to date elsewhere in the period, and they are largely confined to settlement pit or ditch contexts. The grave goods are minimal. The midden deposit at 1705 Wallingford echoes other such deposits found before in this and the previous period, and the different states of pit and ditch disposals (partial burials, redepositions, domestic refuse associations and so forth) have the same forms as those on other sites in this period. This and the 'casual' human bone material provide more evidence for a ritual processes using human bone in a possible variety of transfer activities, but little to suggest in this group at least that an elite burial rite existed.
[SE MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south east area with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 1438 Bancroft (433bc, 389bc) and 1463 Hartigans MK19 (360bc, 150bc).
[SE MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 14 sites are distributed among categories of open and enclosed settlements, isolated graves, flat cemeteries, fortified settlements, and river sites. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (5), pit (12), cist (1), urn (1), binding (2), stone arrangements (1) and no others [codes 2151-2173 in 1:1 combination with 2009]. The pits are distributed in the three main focal areas of the group.
[SE MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence shows that the single phase rite was apparently dominant in multiple varied disposals, 13 of the 14 sites containing disposals using it, and two using a multiple phase rite. There were eight sites with evidence for ritual activity, on six occasions with single phase rite disposals, and twice with the multiple phase rite disposal. The eight sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur in the general distribution for the group. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south east area includes:
The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is not great despite the number of sites, and with a few exceptions resembles that of the earlier evidence. The site with particular ritual interest is that at 1445 Prebendal Court in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire.
The status of Thames river finds at 1506 Wraysbury is uncertain, and may or may not indicate a special river deposit. The 1704 Runnymede midden parallels other such deposits already described. 1440 Gravelly Guy (unpublished in 1996) may hold evidence relevant to this research.
[SE MVD] Disposal process
Of the 14 sites, none were cremation only sites, two contained inhumation and cremation, and 12 inhumation only. This again differed slightly from the other two groups which had no joint sites each, and some cremation only sites.
Single phase rites occurred on thirteen sites in this group, and multiple phase rites certainly twice. There was evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment at: 950 Mill Hill A (?inference from narrowness of some grave slots), 297 Park Brow, 1439 Watkins Farm, 1445 Prebendal Court, 1506 Wraysbury and 1704 Runnymede.
[SE MVD] Tokenism
Token deposits (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 1445 Prebendal Court and 1704 Runnymede.
[SE MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There is no evidence for these.
[SE MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 14 multiple varied disposal sites, 10 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although all of these sites also have accompanied burials. These unaccompanied disposal sites occur in the same general distribution as the group. Of the unquantifiable number of individuals buried without grave goods in this group, only one was identified as male and three as female.
Four of the eight sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
All 14 sites had accompanied disposals. The grave goods included: personal decor (4 sites), personal craft (2), excellence (4), animal parts (4), whole animals (4), domestic refuse (9), personal utensil (3) and objet trouvée (2).
The four clearly identified accompanied male disposals were associated with: domestic refuse (1 case), domestic refuse and fossilised sea urchin (1), bronze head dress, iron sword and decorated bronze scabbard, coral bead decorated cast bronze suspension loop, bronze brooch, and a shield with bronze fittings (1), and a horse, dog, iron adze, and plain vessel (1).
The five identified female accompanied disposals were associated with: half a chalk spindle-whorl and a perforated long bone (1 case with a 3 month old child), shale bracelet, iron brooch, quernstone fragment, ox bone (1), a dog (1), worked chalk block, horse skull, domestic refuse (1), and wooden and leather objects (1)
All sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals.
[SE MVD] Elite burial rites?
There are several burials where goods of excellence accompany the disposal. At 186 Sutton Courtenay B a sword grave may have existed which had also been accompanied by one or more Aylesford culture cremations (which would place the grave late). This grave was an isolated burial. At 950 Mill Hill A there was the burial of a male with very finely decorated armour. This was some 50m apart from a regular Iron Age inhumation cemetery. At 1506 Wraysbury, a skull recovered from the Thames was found with an Ewart Park sword.
As was often the case with the materially rich graves of earlier periods, the setting, process and ritual accompaniment of these burials show little distinction from the burials of those with less rich or no grave goods. The issue of the underlying purpose of deposition of these goods indicating material wealth remains.
Other sites in this group show individuals buried with whole animals (a female with a dog, much as one in the period 3500-2500bc, a person with a sheep or goat, and a person with a horse, perhaps a valuable asset in itself), and the use of skulls or skull fragments in settlement, ditch, pit, river, and midden contexts (a form of selection may have gone into some of these deposits, much as in previous periods).
[SE MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 950 Mill Hill A (440bc), 1439 Watkins Farm (range [1110bc] 390-110bc), 1506 Wraysbury (800bc, 790bc), and 1704 Runnymede (range 800-670bc).
[SE] Sites without disposals
There are two sites with some features of interest in the south east area for this period. At 135 Barrow C Churn Plain, there was no recorded burial but a double pit just south of the centre of the barrow. This comprised two pits cut irregularly and joined near one end. In both sections of the pit there was much wood ash, animal bone and a large amount of Early Iron Age pottery.
At 1460 Standlake Iron Age Settlement no human skeletal material has been recorded although the site has pits, post-holes, huts, gullies and ditches dated to the Early Iron Age. This is unusual for a settlement site of the period given the rest of the evidence. Disposal processes may have taken a different form at this site, but why this should be so is a puzzle.
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