SD = single disposals; MSD = multiple disposals, MVD = multiple varied disposals
Cremation and inhumation
There do not appear to be any particular biases in parts of the region towards sites with cremation only, inhumation only or both methods: all types appear to be evenly distributed. In respect of the disposal process, there is a heavy bias towards cremation only sites, against numbers for inhumation only and sites with both methods on them. Single and multiple similar disposal sites have only two sites using both methods out of 249, while the multiple varied sites have 22 out of 73, a very much higher proportion.
[SW SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 195 sites are distributed among the categories of chambered tombs or long barrows, earthen long barrows, round barrows, individual cairns, cairn cemeteries, cists, pits, ring-banked enclosures, ditched enclosures, flint ring enclosures, open ground, and caves or rock shelters. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (29), mound (110), pit (75), cairn (57), chamber (7), cist (74), coffin (1), plank (1), platform or paving (14), pyre (7), urn (63), bag (4), box (1), shaft (1), mortuary house (1), wrapping (3), stone arrangements (5) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4001].
The largest group, comprising the 110 mounds, is a very widely distributed type but with concentrations on the northern coasts of Cornwall and Devon and in the Cotswold-Mendip region, and with large gaps on Dartmoor and in the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area. Sites with pits (75) are also widely spread, but there are noticeable concentrations in the Cornwall-South Devon area, and in the Cotswold-Mendip region, with much smaller concentrations in south east Wales and the Exmoor- Glastonbury Plain area. Sites with cists (74) are widely distributed, and Dartmoor provides instances of this type where otherwise, except for cairns, it is poorly represented.
In respect of sites with lower frequency of container types, urns (63) seem to occur in two distinct patterns: there are clusters of sites with urns in Cornwall (especially in the south west and north west) and south Devon, then there appears to be a gap to the north which ends with a wider scattering of urn sites in the northern part of the south west area, and apparent small concentrations in the south Cotswold-Mendip area. Sites with cairns (57) are widely spread. They are of greater frequency in the Dartmoor area, show a gap in the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area, and then occur throughout much of the northern part of the south west area. Sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (29) occur widely and are evenly scattered.
For the most part there is only a handful of other examples of container, and only two or three types are worth some comment. Sites with platform or paving (14) occur evenly spaced along the coastal region of Somerset down to south Cornwall with one or two inland, and pyre sites (7) are mostly found in the northern part of the south west area. Chambered sites (7) mostly fall in the south. These are perhaps too small numbers for any significance to be assumed.
The overall impression gained from the geographical distribution of container types is that for the single disposal there appears to be no area where use of a type is exclusive to the area. There is one area where there appears to be generally less evidence for any type except pits (the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area), and there are several areas where evidence shows some predominant types occurring together in the period (south east Wales, Cotswold-Mendip, and south Devon-Cornwall groupings). Dartmoor seems to be strongly represented only in the cairn and cist types.
[SW SD] Comparisons with the Earlier Neolithic: implications of distributions
It might appear from the wider distribution of sites that the Earlier Neolithic population foci have spread out, human activity now being in more evidence in the region between southern Cornwall and the Cotswold-Mendip region. The whole of the south west area now can provide more even quantities of evidence for disposals. Whether this was an indigenous population extending its territory, or a population being added to from outside, or both, is an interesting issue, particularly given some observable changes in material goods and physical types in the period which beg an explanation.
However, the impression given by the distribution may mislead. The evidence for the Earlier Neolithic suggests that a disposal process very often ending in a form of communal burial was applied to most people who died. This logically would result in few individual burials, and such burials were unlikely to be found if the burial sites were seldom made prominent by their monument, as was the case. If the disposal practice in the Neolithic-Bronze Age transition was turning towards more individual disposal, then the new single disposal sites might tend to be created locally, because the new disposal practice did not require transfer of the disposal to a central monument of communal focus. Hence the wider distribution of visible disposal monuments might simply reflect an already widely spread population. In the previous period that population usually would have taken their dead, directly, or after a primary phase of temporary and low profile burial or exposure, to a communal monument, perhaps sometimes at a distance from the home territory - but now it did not want or need to do this.
In the Earlier Neolithic there must indeed have been places used as temporary resting places for the dead before transfer to a communal site, since the evidence shows that bodies already partly or wholly decomposed were transferred into these monuments, or buried in or beside them. For whatever reason preceding the act of transfer, there was temporary burial or exposure for some of the dead. If the more individual burial practice grew in the period 2500-14/1300bc, then it is possible that the move from communal to individual burial practice simply brought with it an increase in visibility of the local disposal as it changed from temporary to permanent for some individuals of the locality, the individual being placed in a more permanent local monument, with no transitional phase in the rite. This event is contemporaneous with reduced occurrence of the mortuary house in 2500-14/1300bc. The need for such a transient structure might have been passing. The process of transfer of the temporarily housed human remains to a more permanent location elsewhere possibly was being overtaken by a rite carried out locally.
The social inferences to be drawn from the change will need some examination.
[SW SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was very dominant in single disposals, 189 of the 195 sites using it, the other 6 using a multiple phase rite. There were 30 of these sites practising ritual activity, which suggests that ritual activity has no strong associations necessarily with the type of disposal (single or multiple phase rite), although the multiple phase rite will, by its extended nature, offer more opportunity for such activity. This possible deduction from the evidence is somewhat corroborated by the occurrence of ritual activity in this area on multiple disposal sites: that on multiple similar disposal sites is much less frequent than that at multiple varied sites. This seeming disassociation may be important, since it may imply that the ritual activity is directed at matters more universal or general than a particular disposal or set of disposals on a site. Nonetheless, the visible incidence of ritual activity is dropping in the period 2500-14/1300bc. That may not imply a decline in importance of the driving purpose of such activity, which may find means of expression in other ways.
The 30 sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur for the most part along the Somerset, north Devon and north Cornish coastline with a scatter in the Cotswold region, and the 6 multiple phase rite sites occur in the same areas. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at single disposal sites in the south west area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is very wide even with a single phase rite. There is quantitatively less bone manipulation, but the opportunity was correspondingly reduced with cremation dominating the treatment of the body. For the instances of inhumation, the occurrence is high and what survives is similar to instances of the previous period. The incidence of deposits of animal bone and of domestic refuse had dropped markedly, but when it does occur is also of the same type as in the Earlier Neolithic. The new feature is the use of small pits and scoops for depositing lithic material, other special items or redeposited earth (one site featuring 141 such pits), or for activity perhaps connected with preparation of the cremation deposit (for example washing charcoal from the burnt bones). Pits with contents very similar to some found in the Earlier Neolithic also occur with deposits of waste sherds, flints and occasional human skull fragments.
There may be more evidence for expression of interest in colour associated with the monument both within and outside, and there are hints at the concomitants of the disposal rite itself in the surviving branch and chaplet, and wooden objects buried at several sites - if these are not mere refuse or casual burials. The burial of empty vessels and a cist echoes the empty chambers and monuments of 3500- 2500bc.
[SW SD] Disposal process
Of the 195 sites, 152 were cremation only sites, 41 inhumation only and only 2 had both processes. Single phase rites in this group imply inhumation or cremation with no apparent foregoing disposal activity like exposure, disarticulation or bone manipulation. However, it is seldom possible to tell whether the body had been exposed before being cremated, and the assumption here is that cremations were generally of fleshed bodies unless there are clear indications otherwise, and therefore that most cremations were single phase rites.
Six sites indicate a multiple phase rite, implied by the state of the body before final deposition, but there are 4 others where a part body may suggest such a practice, as well as ritual activity. The 10 were at 8 Torbay I (defleshed body flexed on paving), 14 Wellow I (disarticulated skeletal material), 29 Frocester II (parts of human bone in the mound), 200 Trevassaborough (skeletal material scattered on the barrow floor), 308 Corston Lime Kilns Quarry (body deposited after ligaments had decayed, and bones also in burial fill and scattered on barrow floor; the bone condition implying a protected prior burial), 330 Slaughter Bridge (human bone mixed with animal bone and a sherd in a pit), 331 Slaughter Bridge (cranium and pottery in a pit), 335 King's Stanley 1 (piece of skull with sheep bones and calcined stone in a pit), 1060 Llancaiach Isaf (child's skull in a cist), and 1512 Riverside (where the skeleton was disarticulated).
[SW SD] Tokenism
The descriptions of cremations, especially the earlier reports, seldom unambiguously identify whether the deposit is of a complete cremated body. Note is made here only of those deposits clearly identified or identifiable by implication as partial, and hence assumed to be token deposits. There is an impression gained from reports that often as much of the cremated bone as possible was collected and deposited, but this is not scientifically supported.
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at 193 Bosiliack , 210 Cataclews 10, 217 Trebartha, 219 Rosecliston, 229 St Mewan 1, 265 Chewton Mendip 34, 266 Ston Easton 1, 274 Batheaston 2, 275 Charlcombe 2a, 279 St Catherine 1, 294 Shipham 4, 321 Norton Radstock 2, 335 King's Stanley 1 (Pit D), 337 Frampton-on-Severn, 347 Chedworth 2, 352 Hampnett 4, 354 Hampnett 6, 399 Cwm Car Farm, 1109 Kerrow, 1322 Little Butterhole, 1375 Lydford 28, and 1381 Peter Tavy 39.
[SW SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 257 East Putford 7 the extended skeleton had been laid in a log structure with corner posts inclining inwards at 60° to form a low gabled mortuary house, possibly completed by a ridge pole and sloping roofs of branches or wattlework. Over this the mound was built. There was a possible simple mortuary structure within 321 Norton Radstock 2. Perhaps only that at 257 East Putford 7 can be considered a true mortuary house, and it appears to have been built to hold one individual, unlike the larger structures of the last period.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines. These occur at six sites: 200 Trevassaborough (stake circle at the barrow base enclosing burned areas, and a wooden fence enclosing the crown of the mound, also with burned areas), 223 Otterham 1 (ring of small stake- holes), 229 St Mewan 1 (double post circle set in pits and three posts equidistant within the ring, with a break in the circle at the southeast), 308 Corston Lime Kilns Quarry (possible line of stake holes running south west from the cist), 385 Six Wells 271' (an accurate stake circle with a possible west entrance, and varying spaces between each stake, but most close and regular at the south east), and 1256 Little Gaverigan Barrow (fragments of small stakes in the inner ditch, and possible post holes on northern side). These structures generally appear to have been insubstantial and were often dismantled or broken down as the mound or cairn was built. They therefore presumably were for a temporary purpose only.
[SW SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 195 single disposal sites, nearly half (87) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed evenly across the whole south west area, and encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking just the major categories, 51 are under mounds (compared with 110 for all single disposals), 35 in pits (75), 28 in cairns (57), 36 in cists (74), and 32 were urned (63). It is a point of interest that for these single unaccompanied burials, the choice of container in these major categories is more or less in proportion to their numbers, and there is no particular discrimination.
The great majority of these unaccompanied single burials were placed in simple monuments or settings, but there were eight sites where the construction of the monument or the attendant ritual activity for which evidence survives appears more elaborate. The site at 200 Trevassaborough was created by a three stage process. Stage I was the setting of a single stake circle, with fires, some human skeletal material and wooden objects left or deposited. Stage II was the formation of a platform mound, with fires being lit and pottery broken. Stage III was an upper layer of earth extending out to the single stake circle. A double stake circle was set into the edge of this mound. There was later activity, attested by pottery associated with two low mounds on the east side. At 221 Glendorgal miniature cists and pits were made to hold stone and flint deposits. At 223 Otterham 1 there was a central small mound, and a stake circle construction. At 225 Gwithian V the round barrow structure was likened by the excavator to an attempt to copy a Scillonian entrance grave, but using pits, turf mounds and timbers. There was other ritual activity evidence at the site. At 271 Tickenham 1 there was a two phase cairn. At 321 Norton Radstock 2 there appears to have been a pre-burial structure set up on the barrow site. At 373 Pennard Burch the barrow appears to have been built in several stages, and possibly over a hut with a hearth. 385 Six Wells 271' barrow was built over a stake circle with an integral cist holding an urn burial, and a central pit capped with a dome and leading into a narrow pipe in the rock.
Seven of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and two as female, too small a proportion of the whole for any significance to be given to the facts.
Fourteen of the 30 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, again approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.
Turning to the 108 accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, there are some features of distribution which are worth recording. Those disposals with items of personal decor (22) form a crescent swinging north east from north Cornwall through South Devon, and then through east Somerset up to the Mendip-Cotswold region. Those with items connected with the individual's craft or work (22) appear in on sites in south Cornwall, then along the north coast to the Mendip-Cotswold region. Items of excellence (defined broadly to include not just precious metals and items of possible symbolic importance but finely wrought goods of any material) occur on 38 sites, and are widely spread, the only clear gap being in the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area. Token grave goods appear on 20 sites mainly clustered in the Mendip-Cotswold region with a few scattered to the south. The animal associations are fewer (14 sites have animal parts), and also cluster in that region, with even fewer to the south. All five sites with domestic refuse accompanying the disposal occur in the Mendip- Cotswold region. Disposals with personal utensils (including Beakers) total 42, and occur in groups in north Cornwall, on the north and south Devon coastal areas, in the Mendip-South Cotswold region and in south east Wales. Finally, objets trouvées are found at just five burials, all south of Mendip.
Whether the sex of the disposal has any relationship to the types of good with which it is associated is hard to tell on the figures for this group. The 17 clearly identified male disposals are associated with token sherds (1 case), Beaker and possible earring (1), Beaker and 'ornaments' (1), Beaker (2), Beaker, flint tools and animal bone (1), Beaker and flint (1), domestic refuse (2, including one very rich in Beaker sherds and Beaker settlement debris), flint tools (2), beads and bronze awl (1), animal bone (1), bronze knife, charcoal and flints (1), bronze knife and charcoal (1), two bronze daggers, bronze pin and perforated stone axe hammer (1) and a bone pin (1).
The two female accompanied disposals are associated with a Beaker (1 case), and animal bone (1, a part burial in an apparent ritual pit).
[SW SD] Combinations of grave goods
In a more general analysis, and taking the more frequent grave good types in turn, the goods of excellence are most often associated with items of personal decor (11:38 instances), tools for craft or work (13:38) and personal utensils (10:38) but are in multiple combination with those types within these instances only about a dozen times. Their occurrence with other grave good types (token deposits, animal remains, domestic refuse and objets trouvées) is rare. Perhaps the excellence of the goods was an alternative representation of the value or quality that animal remains and domestic refuse had hitherto provided in accompanying disposals. Personal utensils occur in these combinations: with items of personal decor (7:42 instances), tools for craft or work (11:42) and with goods of excellence (11:42). At only three of the sites included in these counts do all four types occur together, and in lesser combinations at a handful more. Items of personal decor occur with goods of excellence (13:22 instances), with tools for craft or work (4:22), with token grave good deposits (4:22) and with personal utensils (7:22). Tools for craft or work appear in combination with items of personal decor (4:22), goods of excellence (13:22), domestic refuse (1:22) and personal utensils (11:22). Animal bone deposits were associated with tools (4:14 instances), goods of excellence (1:14), token deposits (4:14), domestic refuse (1:14), and personal utensils (4:14), but in only two instances were in combination with a third type. Token deposits occur in combination with other types on 11:20 occasions, four times with items of personal decor, three times with goods of excellence, four times with animal parts, and once with domestic refuse. These deposits range from the placing of individual flint flakes or sherds with the disposal, to deposits of hazelnuts and pygmy cups, and the interpretation and definition is a very subjective one. A very rigorous definition of tokenism would probably much reduce the numbers, but the interpretation here has taken into account the whole site context.
Sixteen of the 30 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied single disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[SW SD] Elite burial rites?
It would appear from the evidence that there is a widely spread variety of disposal practices for the single disposals. The evidence of this large group also suggests that for these disposals the underlying process and ritual activity was undifferentiated, save solely in the combination of grave goods, from nil deposit to a multiple set including goods of excellence.
'Excellence' is a modern value judgement, based on present day concepts of fine manufacture, beauty, rarity, and material value, to quote the more obvious criteria. While it may be safe in many instances to assume that some of these values also held in the past, it is necessary to consider at least three other possibly relevant factors. One is that excellence is in the eye of the beholder, and another that otherwise poorly endowed people may possess some precious objects. The third is that the meaning of the excellent object may not necessarily always express rank or other social superiority, since its deposition is a matter of choice.
The meaning of the 'excellence' in absolute terms may be the same as that of the 'domestic refuse' or 'animal bone' (with which it appears to be virtually mutually exclusive in occurrence in this group). The goods of excellence are perhaps an investment in a different form, and special for their rarity or other qualities, but in principle with the same depositional meaning, and fulfilling the same purpose. It is not certain at this point that such goods are always deposited for or by any social elite, at least in the south west area, since there is no evidence as yet emerging on other counts that clearly distinguishes an elite burial rite per se, saving the elementary fact of individual treatment which is by its nature elitist. That may in the end be the simple determining factor, if other distinguishing marks do not unambiguously emerge.
[SW SD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south west area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 197 Colliford CRIV C (1630bc), 199 Davidstow Moor (1790bc), 200 Trevassaborough (1570bc), 203 Davidstow Moor (1490bc), 206 Penhale Barrow (1600bc), 210 Cataclews 10 (1560bc), 271 Tickenham 1 (1375bc), and 313 Brean Down (1510bc). These are all relatively late in the period.
The 54 sites appear to fall into four geographical groups: south Cornwall (14), south east Wales (11), Mendip (9) and north Cotswold (10), the remainder being thinly spread between Mendip and north Cornwall.
[SW MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The sites are distributed among the categories of chambered tombs or long barrows, earthern long barrows, round barrows, individual cairns, cists, pits, ring ditches, ditched enclosures, and caves or rock shelters. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (10), mound (30), pit (21), cairn (12), chamber (6), cist (18), coffin (1), platform or paving (5), urn (21), bag (1), tree trunk (1), mortuary house (1), stone arrangements (2) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4002].
The largest group, comprising the 30 mounds, is a very widely distributed type and with concentrations similar to those of the single disposal group on the northern coasts of Cornwall and Devon, in the Mendip region and north Cotswolds, and with large gaps on Dartmoor and in the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area. Sites with pits (21) have noticeable concentrations in south Cornwall and north Devon, but otherwise are thinly scattered. Sites with cists (18) fall in four small clusters in south Cornwall, south east Wales, Mendip and the north Cotswolds. Urns (21) seem to occur in two distinct patterns: there is a thick cluster of 10 sites in south Cornwall but the rest are thinly distributed elsewhere in the south west area. Sites with cairns (12) occur in three groups: south Cornwall, south east Wales and north Devon. Sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (10) occur widely and are evenly scattered.
For the most part there is only a handful of other examples of container, and only two types are worth some remark. Sites with platform or paving (5) occur in south Cornwall, Mendip and the north Cotswolds, while chambered sites (6) fall in south Cornwall and in the north Cotswolds. These numbers are perhaps too small for any significance to be assumed.
[SW MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was also very dominant in multiple similar disposals, 53 of the 54 sites using it, the other using a multiple phase rite.
The 9 sites formally coded as having ritual activity are scattered throughout the whole area. The number is in approximately the same proportion as that for the single disposal sites. There are a number of other sites where evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple similar disposal sites in the south west area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is still wide, but there seems to be much less of it even allowing for the fewer sites in this group. There are examples paralleled in the previous group, but a most notable absence is the pit deposit, which is virtually non-existent as a ritual activity. This may be a function of the record, but consistent absence makes that less likely.
[SW MSD] Disposal process
In the group, 41 sites were cremation only and 13 inhumation only. No site held examples of both. The process was a single phase rite usually, but the following sites offer examples (one definite) where the deposit could have been subjected to a multiple phase process: 25 Frocester I (bones of three persons in the entrance blocking, implicitly disarticulated), 370 Tooth Cave (disarticulated remains and bone placements), and 438 Small Down Camp (skull fragment in stratum of domestic refuse, and jaw placed on ledge in ditch).
[SW MSD] Tokenism
Comment has already been made above about the risks in interpreting token deposits. Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at 173 Ballowal Cairn, 208 Treligga Common 1, 233 Markham Lane, 276 Charlecombe 2, 293 Burrington 3, 377 Mount Pleasant, and 396 Pentre Farm. Deposits which might double as ritual and token (jaw placements) occur at 438 Small Down Camp, and 370 Tooth Cave.
[SW MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 258 East Putford 7a there were (probably) 8 inhumations laid side by side in hollowed tree trunks, and covered by a wooden mortuary house with a north wall and a lean-to roof to the south. This is a pair with 257 East Putford 7 which held a single mortuary house disposal.
Elsewhere there were no other forms of internal temporary structure of note. This contrasts with the single disposal group. There were several sites where elaborate multiple rings of (usually) low stone walls formed part of the internal retaining structures of mounds or cairns (173 Ballowal Cairn being massive and an exception to the rule), and at one site a megalithic chamber was covered by a round barrow (168 Zennor Quoit).
[SW MSD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 54 multiple similar disposal sites just over half (29) have no accompanying grave goods at all, only very slightly more in proportion than for single disposals. A further eight sites have at least one disposal with no grave goods, making 37 sites in all. The sites with unaccompanied disposals map evenly onto the general distribution of sites in this group across the whole south west area, and encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking just the major categories, 16 are under mounds (compared with 30 for all multiple similar disposals), 13 in pits (21), 10 in cairns (12), 9 in cists (18), and 13 were urned (21). Among these, the cairns appear to be in a higher than average proportion.
The great majority of these unaccompanied multiple similar burials were placed in simple monuments or settings, but there was one site where the construction of the monument appears more elaborate (173 Ballowal Cairn).
Four of these unaccompanied disposal sites were clearly identified as holding male disposals, and five as female, as before too small a proportion of the whole for any significance to be given to the facts.
Six of the nine sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, on admittedly small numbers in close proportion to the total representation of such disposals (37:54).
Turning to the 25 accompanied multiple similar disposals (8 of these sharing a site with an unaccompanied disposal), and taking the grave good types individually, the numbers for each type are not large enough for any distribution pattern to be discerned: goods of personal decor (4 instances), personal craft (9), excellence (6), token (2), animal part (4), domestic refuse (2), personal utensil (8) and objet trouvée (1). Also there appears to be seldom any co-association (and not necessarily with the same individual burial), for example goods of excellence and personal craft occur together three times only, and goods of personal craft, personal decor and personal utensils once together, other co-associations being virtually non-existent even in simple dual combination. This is in contrast to patterns of deposition of goods associated with the single disposals in the south west area.
Whether the sex of the disposal has any relationship to the types of good with which it is associated is also hard to tell on the figures for this group. The four clearly identified male disposals are associated with a bronze awl (1), a bone needle, bone spatula, bone bead, and flint implements (1), a Beaker and a hammer pebble (1), and a Wessex I/II transition ring-headed bone pin (1).
The three female accompanied disposals are associated with a bronze knife-dagger (1), a bronze awl (1, in the same association as with the male above), and a bone needle, bone spatula, bone bead, and flint implements (1, in the same association as with the male above).
Four of the nine sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied multiple similar disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[SW MSD] Elite burial rites?
Examination of this group shows that occasionally the classification of a disposal as multiple similar may include a disposal event similar to that seen in the more elaborate single disposal site. For example, the Gazetteer entry for the disposal at 358 Naunton 2. This might be thought essentially a special individual burial directed at the adult female (accompanied by a child in this case), given the excellence of goods, the more elaborate structure, the seeming ritualistic formation of the mound layers, and the interesting stratum of animal and charcoal deposit on the barrow base. However, this is a dangerous case to argue, since there are a few other sites in this group with just two or three disposals on them and with distinctive treatment in the surviving record, which might or might not be as elite as that at 358 Naunton 2.
These seem the exception, however. In this group of 54 sites, only 6 have goods of excellence, and other types of goods are not well represented (ranging between 0-4 instances overall), saving personal craft goods (9) and personal utensils (8). The ritual activity appears less busy, the grave goods less in evidence, and when they exist are in nil or infrequent combination. This implies less attention is being given to the disposal as far as the surviving record goes. In other respects, however, there are many similarities between the single and multiple similar disposal groups in disposal method, monument variety, types (but not frequencies) of ritual activity, relative frequencies of occurrence of site and disposal characteristics, and treatment of sex where determinable. It is not easy to determine an elite rite on the evidence, save in the occasional site in this group which can be compared with similar better endowed types in the single disposal group.
[SW MSD] Radiocarbon dates
The following sites are recorded in the Gazetteer with radiocarbon dates: 7 Tregiffian (1539bc), 194 Chysauster 38 (range 1840-1380bc), 209 Treligga Common 2 (1430bc), 227 Watch Hill (1520 and 1470bc), 396 Pentre Farm (1520bc) and 1390 Bulleigh Meadow (2515 and 2645bc).
[SW MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 73 sites are distributed among the categories of chambered tombs or long barrows, round barrows, henges, individual cairns, flat cemeteries, cists, ring ditches and caves or rock shelters. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (23), mound (58), pit (38), cairn (22), chamber (4), cist (29), coffin (2), platform or paving (9), pyre (8), urn (39), bag (3), box (1), mortuary house (2), binding (1), bundling (1), stone arrangements (4) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4009].
The largest group, comprising the 58 mounds, is once again a widely distributed type but with concentrations in Cornwall, south east Wales and in the south Cotswold- Mendip region, a thin group in the north Cotswolds and with large gaps in Devon, on Dartmoor and in the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area. Sites with pits (38) have concentrations in the south Cotswold- Mendip region, the north Cotswolds and south east Wales, but are very thinly dispersed elsewhere. Urns (39) seem to occur in groupings in south Cornwall, in the south Cotswold-Mendip region, and in south east Wales, with the few remaining sites thinly dispersed in the areas between.
Turning to sites with lower frequency of container types, sites with cists (29) form clusters in south east Wales and Mendip, with the rest spread through the whole south west area. Sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (23) occur in groups in the Mendips, south Cotswolds, north Cotswolds and south east Wales, but then are scattered. Sites with cists (22) are scattered over all parts of the south west area but do not appear on Dartmoor or in the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain region.
For the most part there is only a handful of other examples of container, and only two or three types are worth some remark. Sites with platform or paving (9) seem to occur in an evenly spaced string leading from Scilly to the north Cotswolds, and pyre sites (8) are mostly found in the northern part of the south west area (as was the case with single disposal pyre sites) while chambered sites (5) divide between Scilly and the south Cotswold-Mendip region.
The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is much the same as for the single disposal sites. There appears to be no area where use of a type is exclusive to the area. There is one area where there appears to be generally less evidence for any type (the Exmoor-Glastonbury Plain area), and there are several areas where the evidence is for several of the predominant types occurring together in the period (south east Wales, Cotswold-Mendip, and south Cornwall groupings).
[SW MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south west area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was apparently very dominant in multiple varied disposals, 70 of the 73 sites containing disposals using it, and 6 of the 73 using a multiple phase rite. There were therefore three sites employing both types of rite at the same location. There were 32 sites with evidence for ritual activity, on 31 occasions with single phase rite disposals, and on three occasions with multiple phase rite disposals. This continues to support the thesis that ritual activity has no strong associations necessarily with the type of disposal (single or multiple phase rite). The incidence of ritual activity is very much higher, also, in this site group than on the single and multiple similar disposal sites reviewed earlier.
The 32 sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur for the most part along the Cornish coastline with a group in south east Wales, a few in Mendip and a scatter in the Cotswolds. The multiple phase rite sites occur in Scilly (2) and are scattered in the Mendip-Cotswold region (4). There are also a number of other sites where evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south west area includes:
The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is very wide even with the single phase rite so dominant, and is similar in scope to that of the single disposal group. There is very little discernible bone manipulation, however, and this is a striking reduction in incidence given that 25 of these 73 sites have inhumation evidence, only three of those being solely with inhumations. The incidence of deposits of animal bone by itself is minimal although the horse head deposit is very unusual in the period in respect of both the animal and the individuality of the deposit. Deposits of domestic refuse occur in the same form as before, and for the most part in association with the monument rather than with the individual burial. There were unusually rich refuse deposits at 300 Cheddar 3 and 283 Gorsey Bigbury. The multiple varied disposal group shares with the single disposal group a proclivity for the use of pits and cists for special deposits, and (perhaps to an even greater degree) the practice of special artefact burials. These special deposits sometimes include vegetable or other organic matter, and charcoal or carbonaceous residues from some process hard to determine, possibly midden material. Deliberate breakage of pottery and other artefacts is more clearly identifiable in this group at seven sites. Several sites appear to have had a particularly busy ritual existence: 204 Davidstow Moor, 211 Tregulland Barrow, 1454 Guiting Power 3, 386 Sheeplays 279', 387 Sheeplays 293', 300 Cheddar 3, and 207 Lousey Barrow, but one must bear in mind that this may be more a comment on the comprehensiveness of these site records than on the frequency of such occurrences.
There is some evidence for expression of interest in colour associated with the monument both within and outside at five sites. The burial of empty vessels at some sites again echoes the empty chambers and monuments of 3500-2500bc.
[SW MVD] Disposal process
Of the 73 sites, 48 were cremation only sites, 3 inhumation only and22 had both processes. This was a very different pattern of incidence from those of the other two groups, where evidence for both disposal process on one site was minimal in one case and non-existent in the other. Single phase rites apparently occurred on 70 of the 73 sites in this group, and multiple phase rites six times. At only one of these six sites was there evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed before cremation (rodents had gnawed bones before their cremation at 300 Cheddar 3). At 340 Charlton Kings 1 the inhumations were sandwiched between four layers of stone in each cist, having previously been dismembered, the bones wrapped in clay and set in a clay layer. The female and child skulls were broken and set with the other bones in the layers, but the male's was intact and apparently filled with the same clay before deposition. At 287 Stogursey 1 disarticulation was implied by the state of the inhumations, some complete, others represented by miscellaneous and fragmentary bones, sometimes single and sometimes in small groups within the monument. At 362 Hampnett 2 three pieces of unburnt bone were set against the south face of a hog-backed stone and covered by the surrounding material, and there was the placing of an adult skull near cremation E at 383 Sutton 268'
[SW MVD] Tokenism
Note is made here only of those human burial deposits clearly identified or identifiable by implication as partial, and hence assumed to be token deposits. Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at 212 Crig-a-Minnis, 215 Try, 231 Upton Pyne 248b, 273 Batheaston 1, 278 Charlcombe 9 (which appears to be a cremation cemetery of 27 largely token deposits), 298 Cheddar 2, 299 Cheddar 1, 344 Marshfield 6, 348 Temple Guiting 8, 383 Sutton 268', and 362 Hampnett 2.
[SW MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 204 Davidstow Moor, Phase II's association with holed or notched stones suggests burials within a house-like structure using thatch roof weights. At 212 Crig-a-Minnis there was a stony area containing a small quantity of calcined bone, possibly a spread-out cairn, or the remains of a stone mortury house.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines. These occur at 211 Tregulland Barrow, 386 Sheeplays 279', 387 Sheeplays 293' (five concentric circles), 1150 Priddy 26 (possibly 4 concentric circles), 1344 Carnon Downs, and 1454 Guiting Power 3. In one other instance the stakes appeared to have had a revetting function, in comparison with whatever the function was at the six sites just quoted.
[SW MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 73 multiple varied disposal sites most (59) have burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 37 of these 59 sites also have accompanied burials. These unaccompanied disposals are distributed evenly across the whole south west area, with the now commonplace foci in Cornwall, south east Wales, and the Mendip-Cotswold region but with a gap in north Devon and the Exmoor- Glastonbury Plain region. They encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking just the major categories, 47 are under mounds (compared with 58 for all multiple varied disposals), 33 in pits (38), 18 in cairns (22), 25 in cists (29), and 30 were urned (39). Nineteen of the disposals were laid on the ground (23). It is a point of interest again that, as with the single unaccompanied disposals, the choice of container in the major categories is more or less in proportion to their numbers, and there is no particular discrimination.
The great majority of these unaccompanied burials were placed in simple monuments or settings. That at 287 Stogursey 1 was, however, a massive mound of lias blocks with a very substantial circular inner wall of slabs 9m in diameter.
Six of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and eight as female, once again too small a proportion of the whole for any significance to be given to the facts.
Twenty-six of the 32 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, again approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.
Turning to the 51 accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (37 of these also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually, there are some features of distribution which are worth recording. The most prevalent category is the personal utensil (including Beakers), deposited on 28 of the 51 sites, and occurring sparsely in Cornwall, but mainly in south east Wales and Mendip, with a further half dozen sites within a 20-40km radius of Mendip. Those disposals with items of personal decor (13) apart from two sites in Cornwall are scattered thinly in the northern part of the south west area. Those with items connected with the individual's craft or work (14) appear mostly in south east Wales, Mendip and south Somerset, with a few in the north Cotswolds. Items of excellence occur on 16 widely spread sites, some in Scilly, a few in Cornwall, a thin scatter in south east Wales, a few in Mendip-South Cotswolds, and in south Somerset. Token grave goods appear on 11 sites, mostly in south east Wales with a few in the Cotswold-Mendip region, but with huge gaps elsewhere. The animal associations are fewer (10 sites have animal parts), and also cluster in that region. Two sites with domestic refuse accompanying the disposal occur in the Mendip- Cotswold region, one in south Devon. Finally, items classified as objets trouvees are found with just 6 burials, a few occurring in south Cornwall, most being in the north of the south west area.
The relative proportions of these grave goods to the total number of accompanied disposals are similar to those of goods at single disposal sites.
The most common deposit, the personal utensil, occurs with the other most frequently deposited goods as follows (and not necessarily with the same individual burial): 8 times with personal decor goods, 7 times with goods of excellence, 7 times with animal parts, 6 times with personal craft or trade objects, and 5 times with token deposits. Other higher combinations of goods are of personal decor with goods of excellence (5 times) and with personal craft or trade (4 times), and of personal utensils with personal craft and goods of excellence (4 times). There is one instance where personal utensils are deposited together with goods of personal decor, personal craft and excellence. Otherwise combinations are infrequent.
The 10 clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with: 4 bone needles, a bone scoop, a flint knife, a barbed and tanged arrow head, much animal bone and a Beaker sherd (1), an incomplete Bi Bell Beaker (1), a necked A Beaker, a fine flint dagger and a flint knife (1), flint flakes and a bronze dagger (1), 2 bone pins (1), a flint knife, flint saw, fabricator, whetstone, a crystal and a polished white pebble (same one as last, but sharing these goods with the female and child c. 8- 9, below), an A Beaker and a flint piece (1), an A Beaker (2), a Bi Beaker, 7 barbed and tanged arrow heads, and a chert scraper (1), and a bronze knife blade, a bone bead, an inverted pygmy cup and charcoal (1).
The 12 female accompanied disposals are associated with: sherds, 10 faience necklace beads, a perforated button and a heart-shaped stone with flinty excrescences perforated for the necklace, with the base of a leaf-shaped arrow head of finely worked dark flint (1 possible female or child), two arrow heads (1), sherds and a miniature polished greenstone axe (1 possible female child c. 10), 4 bone needles, a bone scoop, a flint knife, a barbed and tanged arrow head, much animal bone and a Beaker sherd (1, probably sharing these goods and buried in the same cist as the male above), 2 minute fragments of pot and a young sheep tooth (1 with part of a child burial), three pygmy cups, flint, a hook and three pins, a spherical black pottery bead, 6 tiny sherds, a small roll of red paste, many crinoid segments, calcined animal bones of mole, rabbit, and shrew, and a fragment of burnt haematite (1), various beads and a fine bronze lozenge shaped awl (1 with a child c. 3), a short bronze dagger, a bronze pin or awl, a flat tabular shale amulet with suspension hole, and 3 fossil encrinoid beads (1, with a very young child), a flint knife, flint saw, fabricator, whetstone, a crystal and a polished white pebble (1, sharing these with the male and child c. 8-9 above), 3 flint flakes (1 female buried with a neonate), an oval point decorated miniature vessel (1 female buried with foetal bone), bovine teeth (1, and there was a child burial with similar goods at the site), and a rusticated Beaker, flint flake, ox tooth and a bronze awl (1).
The male goods might appear less elaborate in combination and favour Beakers, and the female goods seem to have a bias towards personal decor items, pins, awls and miniaturism. The number of female and child or neonate combinations is interesting.
Twenty-six of the 32 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[SW MVD] Elite burial rites?
This group is interesting for the way in which it seems to combine elements of both the first two. It holds both simple and more elaborate deposits, uses a variety of monument types, and the evidence for ritual activity in many respects exceeds that for the single disposal group. It may provide further support for the view that neither monument nor disposal mode (whether cremation or inhumation, single or multiple phased disposal) may have particular connections with the rite of disposal, and the associated activity. So whither the issue of rites for an elite group?
The multiple varied disposals have sites where both unaccompanied and accompanied disposals were placed (indeed half were such). There does not appear to be particularly elite treatment of the burials recorded as having goods of excellence, since all have other more modestly furnished deposits in the same monument (some secondary). Does this mean that the single well furnished disposals were so much the more elite for preserving their singularity than those similar disposals on sites which held other burials? A counter-argument might suggest that being buried on a site housing a member of the elite might in itself be a mark of the elite.
However, this type of argument has a forced air about it, since the evidence is susceptible to being argued inconclusively either way. The facts seem to be that the accompanied burials on these multiple varied disposal sites have much the same characteristics as those belonging to the accompanied burials on the single disposal sites. The ritual activity of the former is as rich or richer, the monuments and methods are of as great variety. It may be the case that the grave goods of excellence at the single disposal sites include goods of higher excellence than the goods of excellence at the multiple varied disposal sites, using present day criteria. On some sites the former have gold items, perhaps more elaborate personal decor goods, finer tools and more elaborate urns. If deposition of valuable objects is the mark of a burial rite for an elite in society, then this seems to be the sole criterion to be found so far.
But it should be stressed that an elite burial may be served in other ways, and that the co-burial of non-elite groups (using goods as the sole criterion) with elite groups on these multiple varied disposal sites still needs some explanation. It is clear from the evidence assembled so far that many complex activities went on in mortuary practice, from site preparation, through preparation of the dead for disposal and burial, to monument creation and completion, each activity having a purpose. To define elite burial practice from grave goods alone may be simplistic, but perhaps such goods have to be the criterion until shown otherwise.
[SW MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south west area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 204 Davidstow Moor (2180bc), 212 Crig-a-Minnis (1565bc), 231 Upton Pyne 248b (1386bc), 283 Gorsey Bigbury (range 1850-1652bc), 349 Swell 8 (1480, 1440bc), 1454 Guiting Power 3 (1610bc), 1496 Welsh St Donats 2 (2270bc), and 1497 Welsh St Donats 3 (1300 and 1240bc).
[SW] Sites without disposals
There are 28 sites with some features of interest but no recorded burials in the south west area for this period. The monument types are varied, including a long mound, cists, cairns, oval mounds, platform mounds, round barrows, ring cairns, an oval enclosure, henges, and a mound group. A few may originally have had burials, but these have been removed or lost. Others had features which appear on burial sites, and therefore are worthy of note (wherever the term 'grave pit' is used, the grave is empty, or was apparently so):
It is evident that the elaborate activity which occurred on sites without burial deposits is mirroring that on sites with burial deposits. The whole picture continues to suggest that the burial ritual might be set in a wider ritual behavioural context, where the activity at the burial (or before or after) perhaps is carrying into disposal activity some aspects of ritual carried on by the society in its other activities. It is also clear that this period seems to be expanding the ritual traditions of 3500-2500bc into many forms, which occur in both burial and non-burial contexts just as they did in the previous period.
Cremation and inhumation
The sites using solely cremation and solely inhumation are widely distributed, and the sites with mixed methods also are widely spread, but with one notable gap in south Hampshire. In respect of the disposal process, there is a much more evenness than in the south west area, although cremation only sites are overall the most frequent. There are 219 cremation only sites, against 134 for inhumation only and 117 sites with both methods on them. However, the different types of disposal sites reflect different frequencies of use. The single disposal sites divide between those using only cremation (142) and those using only inhumation (84) with, surprisingly, 4 sites using both methods. The multiple similar sites have a similar clear division (25:17:5). However, the multiple varied disposal sites diverge considerably from this pattern, with sites holding both cremations and inhumations being in the majority (108), followed by the cremation only sites (52) and inhumation only sites continuing to hold the middle ground at 34. This bias is even more exaggerated than that on the same type of site in the south west area.
Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal site, as it did in the south west area. At 66 instances on 194 sites, it is twice as frequent as occurrence on single disposal sites (28 occurrences on 230 sites), and one and a half times as frequent as occurrences on multiple similar sites (10:47).
[S SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 230 sites are distributed among the categories of long barrows, mortuary hut or enclosure, round barrows, individual cairns, henges, cists, pits, ring-ditched enclosures, ditched enclosures, settlements, urnfields, and open ground. The vast majority (84%) were round barrows of various design. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (27), mound (194), pit (144), cairn (17), cist (2), coffin (6), plank (2), platform or paving (4), pyre (13), urn (55), bag (4), tree trunk (2), box (3), shaft (1), mortuary house (1), binding (2), wrapping (5), stone arrangements (4), urnfield (1) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4001].
The largest group, comprising the 194 mounds, is very widespread, with a gap in mid to north east Hampshire. Sites with pits (144) are also widely spread, with a similar gap. Sites with urns (55) seem to fall in small groups in the Windmill Hill area and immediately north east, around Stonehenge, around the Dorset Cursus, and around Dorchester. There is a gap in south Hampshire, but otherwise the occurrences of urn burials are sporadic. Sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (22) figure largely throughout the Hambledon Hill-Windmill Hill oval, with a few outliers to the south and east.
For the most part there is only a handful of other examples of container, and only two are worth some remark. Sites with cairns (17) are thinly spread through the area between Dorchester and Windmill Hill, with three outliers to the east. Pyre sites (13) occur mostly in the Hambledon Hill-Windmill Hill oval, with two outliers to the east.
The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is that, for the single disposal, no area exclusively uses a major type, as in the south west area. The container variety is indeed shrinking in variety to a few main types. The other general point of note is the scant representation of sites in valleys of south Hampshire draining into the Southampton Basin.
[S SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was, as in the south west area, apparently very dominant in single disposals, 226 of the 230 sites using it, the other 4 using a multiple phase rite, and 2 sites exhibiting both phase rites. There were 28 sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, three of them holding both single and multiple phase rite burials.
The 28 sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur fairly evenly distributed across the south area, with the general gap already identified in south Hampshire. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at single disposal sites in the south area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is again wide, even with an apparently dominant single phase rite. There is little evident bone manipulation, and for the instances of inhumation (88 sites have it), the occurrence is low. What survives is similar to instances met before. The incidence of deposits of animal bone and of domestic refuse is also not high, but is of the same type as that of the Earlier Neolithic when it does occur. The use of small pits for depositing lithic material, other special items or redeposited earth is present but it is moderate compared with similar sites in the south west area. Sites with clear evidence for use as the pyre base or with pyre material built into the mound are identified in larger numbers in this area.
However, given the size of the group (230 sites), although the various types of ritual activity are mostly present, there is no doubt that, relatively speaking, the occurrences are not numerous in the recorded evidence.
[S SD] Disposal process
Of the 230 sites, 142 were cremation only sites, 84 inhumation only and only four had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at 226 sites. Six sites had evidence of a multiple phase rite, implied by the state of the body before final deposition. At 456 Pewsey 4 some of the decayed skeletal remains were articulated, some not, the body having been interred after exposure elsewhere or having been left for a while in the open grave. At 647 Winterslow 20 only a skull was deposited, facing south. At 653 Arne 19 the body was possibly headless. At 714 Litton Cheney 3 the body possibly was decomposing on burial (but the pathologist disagreed with the excavator on this). At 721 Long Crichel 18 the body had half decomposed before being tightly bound, put in a bag and buried. At 837 Rockbourne Down the female skull had been placed after previous exposure.
[S SD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 560 Bishops Cannings 67, 646 Wylye 2, 647 Winterslow 20, possibly at 738 Poole 37, 832 West Meon Hut, and 837 Rockbourne Down.
[S SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 91 Bishops Cannings 62a there was a possible rectangular structure around the central grave. At 599 Amesbury 15 three wooden posts had been placed in the mound extending from the primary interment to the top of the barrow at an angle. At 800 Beaulieu II there was a sloping sided mortuary house. At 837 Rockbourne Down the post circle surrounding the single skull deposit may have been a mortuary hut or enclosure. At 861 Poundbury, the neonate burial was associated with two successive timber-built rectangular structures, one earlier, one later than the burial, but this may have been a burial in a house in use.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines. These occur at: 91 Bishops Cannings 62a (2 stake circles and a possible rectangular structure around the central grave), 427 Winterbourne Stoke 33 (random scatter of stake-holes), 433 Winterbourne Stoke 49 (irregular stake ring with other inner stake structures). 434 Winterbourne Stoke 50 (regular stake circle enclosing other stake holes), 479 Shrewton 5c (stake structures), 502 Collingbourne Ducis 3a (post circle enclosing 3 pits), 504 Bishops Cannings 62 (3 concentric stake circles inside, at the edge of and outside the mound), 738 Poole 37 (2 lines of stake-holes leading to the south east causeway, stake- and post- holes at the lip of the causeway, a stake-hole line at the east edge of the central grave, and a post-hole circle around the ditch inner edge), 832 West Meon Hut (stake circle surrounding the main mound), 1653 Winterbourne Stoke 34 (a post-hole ring on the edge of the ditch), and 1674 Ring Ditches OGD3 (A37) and OGD4 had a double post circle enclosing the first from which a double post avenue led to the second c. 65m away,
A (?)marker post cut into the bedrock had stood just north of the cremation pit at 471 Amesbury 70. At 714 Litton Cheney 3 there was a central post-hole reaching down to the primary burial. At 786 Winterborne St Martin 31 a (?)post-hole was below the cairn.
[S SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 230 single disposal sites rather less than half (90) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed evenly across the whole south area where burials are found in this period, and encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking just the major categories, 71 are under mounds (compared with 194 for all single disposals), 56 in pits (144), 7 in cairns (17), 10 laid on open ground (27), 6 on pyre sites (13) and 38 were urned (55). It is again a point of interest that for these single unaccompanied burials, as for those in the south west area, the choice of container in these major categories is more or less in proportion to their numbers, but with urns used more, and mounds less. They were all placed in simple monuments or settings.
Eight of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and nine as female.
Eleven of the 28 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, again approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.
Turning to the 140 accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, there are some features of distribution which are worth recording. Those disposals with items of personal decor (33) fall within the Hambledon Hill-Windmill Hill oval, with special concentrations around Stonehenge and Avebury, and a few outlying sites at Dorchester. Just two other sites lie in the east sector of the south area, a large part of that sector being bare. Those with items connected with the individual's craft or work (40) appear on sites with the same distribution as sites with personal decor items, except that there are no examples in the south eastern sector. Items of excellence occur on 45 sites, and are much more widely scattered across the whole south area than the last two types, there being nonetheless a very heavy concentration of such sites around Stonehenge. Token items are found with 19 single disposals, and are concentrated in the Hambledon Hill-Windmill Hill oval, with just one outlier on the Isle of Wight. Animal associations (16 sites have animal parts [14] or whole animals [2]) fall thinly within the Hambledon Hill-Windmill Hill oval, and just south, but none occur east. Only one site occurs with domestic refuse accompanying the disposal itself. Disposals with personal utensils (including Beakers) total 63, occurring in a wide scatter over the whole south area, with a heavy concentration around Stonehenge, and a distinct group of sites along the line of the Ridgeway leading south-westwards to Avebury. The Ridgeway site line has appeared before. Lastly, objets trouvées occur at three burials.
The 19 clearly identified male disposals are associated with: bronze dagger or knife (2 cases), bronze dagger, stone battle axe and 2 Beakers (1), flint arrow head, fine Beaker with decoration picked out in a white substance, plain bronze dagger and sheath, wristguard and an adhering bronze pin, and 2 fossils (1), bronze riveted (?)shield, bronze axe, 2 large bronze daggers (one with gold pinned handle), gold decorated plate, another bronze dagger, a gold lozenge plate, perforated polished mace with a bronze decorated wooden handle, small gold lozenge plate, worked bone articles and many small bone rings (1), 2 bronze daggers, Beaker and stag horns (1), Beaker (3), two Beakers and a bronze awl (1), miniature vessel (2), red deer antler, antler pick (1), bone pin, bone (?)cloak fastener (both of these were unburnt), an unfinished wristguard, and a pendant (both of these were burnt) (1), flint spear head and Beaker (1), perforated stone axe, slightly flanged bronze axe, bone tube (possibly human), bone handle, grooved whetstone and a boar's tusk, and an item of twisted bronze of stirrup shape (1), bronze dagger in a leather sheath, bone tweezers, bone pin, and a whetstone (1), lugged vessel of Beaker affinities and 2 egg-shaped stones (1), and finally a small plain vessel, bronze dagger, bronze knife, whetstone, bone needle or pin, and a bone belt hook (1)
The 12 identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: a bronze awl (1 case), rude bone pin (1), small bronze knife (1), a small bronze blade with amber pommel; an earthenware stud, a barrel shaped lignite bead with gold capped ends and three encircling bands of gold (each cap having 3 incised lines decorating it), a slightly convex disc of red amber framed in borders of thin gold each engraved back and front with 6 concentric lines with regular depressed dots in them, and the rim with two parallel incised lines one of them joining the two borders, the rim having 2 holes bored in it for suspension of the disc, a small bronze blade (?razor) set in a gold sheathed wooden core with lines of incised decoration on the sheathing, 150 small circular jet beads, a fossil encrinite bead, 5 amber beads, 3 tanged bronze awls, a small bronze dagger blade, a fluted black jet bead, a soft pink stone bead, a chalk-like bead (these last three at the skeleton's feet), and a perfect grape cup and an incense cup with the dots and lines filled in with a white substance (1), two beads with gold chain loops (?earrings), jet bead, ornament set in gold. enamelled and chequered like a chess board (1) (Belgic or Romano-British Iron Age?), unburnt flint flake (1), flint nodule figurine (1), Beaker (2), a tooth of a rodent (or possibly badger), small incense cup, 3 simple perforated amber beads, 2 fragile cones of sheet gold decorated round the rim with three tooled lines (possibly to cover buttons), and a miniature copy of a bronze halberd with a blade of copper alloy set in a shaft of amber, with perforations for suspension (1), three beads and a flint blade (1), and finally bone tweezers (1).
[S SD] Combinations of grave goods
In a more general analysis, and taking the more frequent grave good types in turn, the most frequent type is the personal utensil which occurs 63 times, 17 times with personal craft goods and 17 times with goods of excellence. On nine of those occasions the three types are in combination. Personal utensils and personal decor goods occur together nine times. Other combinations are very infrequent. Grave goods of excellence appear on 45 sites, and apart from combinations just mentioned, occur with personal craft goods 16 times and with personal decor goods 13 times. Other combinations are infrequent. Personal decor goods appear on 33 sites, nine times with personal utensils, eight times with personal craft goods, but rarely with other goods except where already mentioned. Token grave goods and animal grave goods occur rarely in any combination.
Seventeen of the 28 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied single disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[S SD] Elite burial rites?
There is no evidence that monument type, container for burial, disposal mode, phased rite or ritual activity point to an elite burial rite. The sole differentiator appears to be again in the grave goods. Compared with the south west, the south area single accompanied disposals have a smaller proportion with goods of excellence (south west 38:108 sites, south 45:140 sites). The south is different in three respects, two of which may be material. The south inhumed a higher proportion of persons buried with goods of excellence than the south west (18 inhumations: 27 cremations compared with 8:30 in the south west). However, this reflects the areas' general preferences for each process, the south west favouring cremation in this period more than the south and south east. Otherwise, the south has at least two geographical foci for such burials (the Avebury and Stonehenge areas) whereas the south west has none; and the south has burials accompanied by goods of excellence of considerably greater wealth, variety and possible symbolic significance than that seen in the south west area. This marking of the burial as particularly special, and the clustering of a number in two particular loci close to massive contemporary monuments (also with burial deposits) is suggestive.
Similar rich burials take place away from those foci in the south area and, contrariwise, burials with modest or no grave goods are made near or at these foci. This might suggest that placing these particular burials there was not necessarily a matter of obtaining prestige by including a richer deposit with the body. It may be simply that these were people of substance who lived there. How they derived their substance is a matter for speculation. One explanation may be that they controlled resources in some manner, either as leaders of society groups or as managers of the massive monuments for whatever purpose. It is conceivable that they were involved with both. There is a high probability that these were an elite, buried with elite grave goods associations: but (since there are no other indicators) their burial rite may in other respects have been in essence the same as that afforded to others. The other two groups in this area may have more evidence to contribute to the issues.
[S SD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 407 Marden (range 2654-1576bc), 416 Amesbury 58 (1360bc), 447 Milton Lilbourne 4 (range 1880-1430bc), and 687 Edmondsham 2 (1527, 1119bc).
[S MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 47 sites are distributed among the categories of long barrows, round barrows and open ground. The vast majority (45) were round barrows of various design. This is a considerable reduction in monument type, indeed the least variety yet encountered. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (10), mound (36), pit (33), cairn (2), platform or paving (1), pyre (2), urn (11), bag (2), shaft (2), mortuary house (2), binding (2), wrapping (1), stone arrangements (2), urnfield (1) and no others [codes 4151- 4173 in 1:1 combination with 4002].
The largest group, comprising the 36 mounds, falls mainly in the area between Dorchester in the south to the Avebury area in the north, with a few outliers to east and west. Sites with pits (33) are similarly distributed. Sites with urns (11) seem to fall mainly in the Dorchester area and to the east, with a few to the north and on the Isle of Wight. Sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (10) occur from Dorchester to the Stonehenge area. Other containers are of very low incidence (range 0-2).
Overall, urn disposals are much lower in incidence, and tend to fall in the south west region of the south area. Otherwise the distributions map broadly onto those of the single disposals.
[S MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was once again, as in the south west area, very dominant in multiple similar disposals, all of the 47 sites using it, with one also using a multiple phase rite. There were 11 sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity.
These 11 sites occur thinly through the Hambledon Hill-Windmill Hill oval, with a few outliers. There is a small concentration around Stonehenge. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple similar disposal sites in the south area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is very reduced in this group, just as it was in the same group in the south west area. There seems to be evidence for many types of ritual activity encountered before, and in familiar form, but the tone is subdued. The one site where there is a remarkable deposit is the shaft (a natural fissure) at 741 Bumper's Lane Second Quarry. This appeared to be one depositional event, from the stratification. The inclusion of the human remains with the domestic refuse suggests that the material may have come from a burial site cleared for some other purpose, that the collection had been otherwise retained elsewhere as a cultivated group (like the deposits at 29 Frocester II), or that it was settlement clearance which picked up casual human bone. Use of natural fissures has occurred before at two sites, but they have been small fissures, and used for single burials.
[S MSD] Disposal process
Of the 47 sites, 25 were cremation only sites, 17 inhumation only and only 5 had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. There was only site where there was a multiple phase rite clearly implied by the state of the body, although evidence at some others was very suggestive. These sites were at: 420 Clarendon Park 5 (bone fragments in the mound), 703 Ashey Down (bone scatter east of the barrow centre), 741 Bumper's Lane Second Quarry (human skulls, skull fragments and limb bones in the shaft), 794 Ashey Down (human bones and domestic debris in mound material brought from elsewhere, comparable in principle with the last), and 1295 Box 4 (many small fragments of human bone on the floor).
[S MSD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 49 Winterbourne Stoke 39, 542 Collingbourne Ducis, 553 All Cannings 1, 1665 Snail Down XVI, and 1673 Coburg Road.
[S MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 429 Winterbourne Stoke 39 there was a central trapezoidal mortuary house, probably with sloping sides, which had been later burnt down and the cremation pit dug through the ashes. At 1660 Alington Avenue there was a possible mortuary enclosure attached to the east end of a presumed long mound.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines. These occur at: 420 Clarendon Park 5 (4 stake-holes in central area), 426 Winterbourne Stoke 32 (3 stake-holes round central cremation pit, and many others recorded), 429 Winterbourne Stoke 39 (stake circle enclosing a central mortuary house), 719 Long Crichel 15 (penannular palisade trench enclosing a cremation with a post-hole to the NW), 775 Wimborne St Giles 23 (2 stake structures in the S quadrant in or over the ditch), and 1450 Buckskin II Estate (2 inner concentric stake circles, and three non-concentric outer circles).
[S MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 47 multiple similar disposal sites, 35 have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites are distributed evenly across the whole south area where burials are found in this period. Twenty-six disposals are under mounds (compared with 36 for all multiple similar disposals), 26 in pits (33), 7 laid on open ground (10), and 7 were urned (11). It is again a point of interest that for these multiple similar unaccompanied burials, as for those in the south west area, the choice of container in these major categories is more or less in proportion to the site numbers. They were all placed in simple monuments or settings.
Three of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and five as female.
All of the 10 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals. This is an unusually high proportion.
Turning to the 15 accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (3 of the 47 sites in the group share accompanied and unaccompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, personal utensils, with 9 occurrences, are by far the most frequent, followed by personal craft items, animal parts and domestic refuse (3 times each), and personal decor items and objets trouvées (once each). Combinations are not usual (and not necessarily with the same individual burial), even of the most prevalent type (personal utensils) with others.
The 4 clearly identified male accompanied disposals are associated with: a Beaker, copper dagger, slate wristguard, small bone instrument, and 2 decorated circular gold discs (1 case), domestic refuse (2 cases on one site), and bone tweezers (1 case).
The 3 identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: a small bronze awl (1 case), and domestic refuse (2 cases on one site).
Three of the 10 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[S MSD] Elite burial rites?
This group has provided a reduced collection of evidence of monument usage and ritual activity, but the numbers in the group are smaller, and the scope has thereby thus been reduced. The group is not particularly distinctive, except for the burials at 585 Mere 6a (notable for goods of excellence), and 741 Bumper's Lane Second Quarry (a striking shaft deposit). Again the only discriminator appears to be goods of excellence, and there seems to be no basis for assuming 'elite' by criteria based on container type, disposal process or ritual activity.
[S MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 444 Milton Lilbourne 1 (1450bc), 654 Arne 8 (1740, 1380bc), 1660 Alington Avenue (2500, 1860bc) and 1701 Buckskin II Barrow (range 2410-[1250bc]).
[S MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 194 sites are distributed among the categories of long barrows, round barrows, stone avenues, henges, causewayed enclosures, post ring structures, ditched enclosures, pits or flat graves, urn cemeteries, settlement sites, and ring ditches. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (32), mound (171), pit (168), cairn (33), cist (15), coffin (5), plank (2), platform or paving (8), pyre (8), urn (86), bag (10), tree trunk (4), box (1), basket (4), shaft (4), mortuary house (6), binding (3), wrapping (6), bundling (3), stone arrangements (11), urnfield (5) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4009].
The largest group, comprising the 171 mounds, is once again a widely distributed type. There are very heavy clusters in the Dorchester area, around Bokerley Dyke, around Stonehenge and to the north east, and in the Avebury/Ridgeway area. Sites with pits (168) have the same distribution in broad terms, but both of these groups are poorly represented in the Southampton Basin (Test and Itchen Valleys) region. Urn burials (86) seem to fall into two distinct areas, one south of Bokerley Dyke, the other around Stonehenge with a few outliers. The areas are separated by the River Ebble as it runs east, before turning south to join the Avon.
In respect of container types of lower frequency, sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (32) occur in two fairly distinct areas, along the south western coastline and on the Isle of Wight, and within 20km of Stonehenge with a few outliers. Sites with cairns (33) are found largely around Dorchester and then stretch in a thin line to Stonehenge and Avebury. There are a few sites on the Isle of Wight. Sites with cists (15) are tightly concentrated around Dorchester, and the remainder are very scattered but with none in the eastern part of the south area. Sites with bags as disposal containers (10) are widely and thinly dispersed.
For the most part there is only a handful of other examples of container, and only two types are worth some remark. Sites with platform or paving (8) occur around Stonehenge and Dorchester, but none seem to exist north of Stonehenge or elsewhere in the south. Pyre sites (8) are thinly distributed in the area around Stonehenge with one on the Isle of Wight.
The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is that the two most numerous types' wide distribution is not reflected in the remainder, and the Test-Itchen Southampton Basin area is generally poorly populated. The distribution of the most numerous types suggests six population foci, including three major ones around Dorchester, Stonehenge and Avebury. The Dorchester region seems to have a monopoly of stone-built structures, and there is a clear Ebble Valley dividing line between two urn burial regions, with that form much less frequent in the north of the south area.
[S MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was apparently dominant in multiple varied disposals, all 194 sites containing disposals using it, and 13 of the 194 also using a multiple phase rite. There were 66 sites with evidence for ritual activity, on all occasions with single phase rite disposals, and on 12 occasions jointly with multiple phase rite disposals. This continues to support the proposition advanced earlier that ritual activity has no strong associations necessarily with the type of disposal (single or multiple phase rite). The incidence of ritual activity is very much higher, also, in this site group than on the single and multiple similar disposal sites reviewed earlier.
The 66 sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur across the whole south area, but there are recognisable groups on the Avebury/Ridgeway line, around Stonehenge (in very great density), around Dorchester and north eastwards along the hill ridges, with some on the coast to the east and on the Isle of Wight. The 13 multiple phase rite sites are very thinly spread, with more in the Stonehenge environs than elsewhere. As in the other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south area includes:
The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is very wide, even with the single phase rite so apparently dominant, and is similar in general scope to that of the single disposal group for this area. The group has a number of striking characteristics. First it offers a great deal of evidence for ritual activity, the strongest and most varied so far, with particular additions in carved and sculptured features, shaft graves, and the association of possible ritual artefacts. The group is very strong in evidence for the use of fire on site, especially pyres, and there are some interesting and clear instances of deliberate breakage. The pit activity is extremely strong, and there are more than the average number of special artefact burials, domestic refuse deposits and animal bone deposits (some of very antique bones). The human bone deposits showing deliberate placing, arrangement or other forms of tampering are there in evidence as much as in the previous period, with new variations in mutilation. Although the evidence for obvious monument blocking has faded out with the reduction in monuments with entrances to block, the occurrence of domestic refuse in the mounds, and the incidence on a few sites of grave fills with deliberate human bone mixing (like those in some chambered tomb blockings in the previous period) may be evidence for a rite in succession to the former completion activity. The occurrence of such bone use combined with other instances where bone other than from the main burial has been introduced, suggests that there may have been off-site burial or bone conservation drawn upon for these ritual depositions.
The site at 408 Woodhenge also appears to have a very marked pattern of non-burial deposition. The site evidently had much attention given to it by a population which gave significance to such deposits, and not in association with burial processes.
Imported materials have never yet been frequent, and only two clear instances are recorded here. One other feature which has declined from low incidence to almost none is the attention possibly given to the use of colour in the monument, although one example (where a crouched inhumation seems to have been sculpted in a deep brown sand medium, on grey-yellow sand) is notable. With statements on colour some caution perhaps should be exercised, as soils and other materials may change colour with long burial, and perhaps what we see now may sometimes not be an intended result but rather an accident of soil chemistry.
Perhaps one other general remark is worth making. The group contains the largest, or to date most famous, sites of the whole period such as 406 Stonehenge, 400 Avebury Henge, 408 Woodhenge, 403 Durrington Walls and 726 Maumbury Rings. On this evidence there are more modest monumental sites, and many of them, with evidence surviving for more complex rites and ritual behaviour than that surviving at these sites. They share characteristics with other minor structures, however, and by virtue of their location in the midst of concentrations of other sites have unambiguous connections.
[S MVD] Disposal process
Of the 194 sites, 52 were cremation only sites, 34 inhumation only and 108 had both processes. This was a very different pattern of incidence from those of the other two groups, where evidence for both disposal processes on one site was minimal. However, the preferential tendency is seen in the same group in the south west area (48-3-22), except that the bias is even more strongly towards dual process sites in the south group.
Single phase rites occurred on all of the 194 sites in this group, and multiple phase rites 13 times. At the multiple phase rite sites there was some evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received prior treatment: 417 Amesbury 61a (many of the bones of the child, adolescent and young adult were weathered and rotted, and were deposited in order), 428 Winterbourne Stoke 38 (skull recovered from burnt mound material), 443 Sutton Veny 4a (partly disarticulated body rearranged into a flexed posture), 507 Monkton Farleigh 2 (incomplete and disarticulated primary burials and disarticulated secondary burials), 717 Long Crichel 7 (Phase I burials possibly deposited as bundles of bones, and Phase II burial deposited in advance state of decomposition), 746 Shapwick 6a (disarticulated primary skeletons, part bone deposits with cremations), 758 Weymouth 8 (disarticulated primary burial), 779 Winterborne St Martin 5c (probable disarticulated primary inhumations), 791 Winterborne Steepleton 19c (Pots 6 and 20 with dismembered inhumations), 866 Chilbolton (primary burial either semi-articulated or in a state of advanced decomposition on deposition), 1656 West Overton 19 (incomplete and dismembered primary burial), 1672 Dorchester 10 (neat separate arrangements of the disarticulated bodies in the various grave pits, indicating possible grave reopening for this purpose), and 1690 Worth Matravers 3 (quantity of disarticulated bones and 4 skulls over feet of first inhumation). These examples generally exclude disposals of fragmented bone in grave fill, which do imply some form of prior treatment before their final deposition, and which are listed above. Disarticulation of otherwise complete bodies on these 2500-14/1300bc sites may be stronger evidence for a multiple phase rite than the disarticulation seen in chambered tombs of the last period, given the rarity with which any disposal of the former period was disturbed once made: in the 3500-2500bc period, however, it is evident that chamber burials were frequently disturbed by later depositions but not yet conclusively as part of a multiple phase rite.
In respect of partial deposits of human bone in ditches, 406 Stonehenge, 400 Avebury and 408 Woodhenge have characteristics in common with some causewayed enclosures of the last period.
[S MVD] Tokenism
Cremated or inhumed token deposits occur at 25 sites: 400 Avebury Henge, 401 West Kennet Avenue (Stone 5b), 403 Durrington Walls, 405 Fargo Plantation, 406 Stonehenge, 408 Woodhenge, 409 Durrington 67, 428 Winterbourne Stoke 38, 455 Winterbourne Stoke 30, 472 Avebury 55 (redeposition?), 476 Winterslow 21, 524 Aldbourne 4, 525 Aldbourne 6, 709 Kingston Russell 3b, 713 Litton Cheney 1/3a, 746 Shapwick 6a, 791 Winterbourne Steepleton 19c, 811 Gallows Hill, 823 Kalis Corner, 827 Micheldever Wood R4, 828 Rockbourne Down, 981 Easton Lane, 1564 Wick, 1642
Amesbury 67b, and 1656 West Overton 19.[S MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 408 Woodhenge the child burial was within 6 concentric circles of wooden posts. At 410 Durrington 68 in the south west quadrant was a four-post structure within an oval or subrectangular post setting with an entrance, believed to pre-date the barrow. At 428 Winterbourne Stoke 38 there was a four-post structure around the primary cremation. At 455 Winterbourne Stoke 30 there was a four-post structure immediately west of the cremation. At 465 Amesbury 51 there was a mortuary house half-buried in a pit, with boarded sides and possibly a sloping roof, which had been exposed and visible for some time before the barrow was built. At 470 Amesbury 71 Phase II had a possible mortuary house (or a coffin) surrounding and covering the body, with a round and a square stake-hole each at one end of the grave. At 478 Shrewton 5a there were stake structures around the inhumation. At 495 Amesbury 85 there was a possible mortuary house (or a coffin?). At 1666 Snail Down XVII there were central post-holes and other features suggesting traces of a wooden platform for the body to rest upon while decaying.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines: 418 Amesbury 61 (stake circle), 428 Winterbourne Stoke 38 (stake arc at ditch inner edge at east), 431 Winterbourne Stoke 46 (close-set stake circle around urn), 432 Winterbourne Stoke 47 (small stake circle as first structure which was burnt down, followed by building of a second, stake-holes in subsequent chalk bank, and larger posts intermittently under the bank, stake-hole lined entrance passage at ESE, incomplete double stake ring around central cremation), 466 West Overton 6b (stake-hole by grave of child IV), 467 Amesbury 39 (two post-holes on inner ditch lip at E, one in ditch bottom at NNE), 470 Amesbury 71 (Phase I semi-circular stake setting in ring ditch; Phase II inner stake circle and double outer stake circle, the latter withdrawn on building of the flint wall; Phase II an upper stake circle with a complex arrangement of posts), 480 Shrewton 5d (2 eccentric stake circles surrounding burial, smaller stake circle around a sterile pit, line of stake-holes with sterile pit at N, and cremation at S), 489 Shrewton 23 (chord of 5 post-holes NS at W side, removed before mound built), 496 The Sanctuary (an earlier phase of concentric wooden post rings preceding the concentric double stone rings), 645 Amesbury (74b) (8 stake holes in no clear pattern in NE quadrant near the centre), 691 Gussage St Michael 21 (marker post hole), 713 Litton Cheney 1/3a (marker post-hole), 811 Gallows Hill (stake circle surrounding grave, withdrawn before grave covered, with another larger stake circle sharing one sector, and an outer stake circle at inner lip if the ditch; there were also stake-hole lines, possible screens, at certain points on the barrow floor and at causeway entrance beyond ditch; outer stake circle at outer lip of eastern perimeter of ditch), 1341 Basingstoke (stake circle with posts at some cardinal points, avenue of stakes leading to the burial pit), 1346 Pentridge 23 (4 post-holes (?)for bridge over ditch), 1502 Calbourne 2 (stake circle enclosing 4 primary burials), 1588 Down Farm Pond Barrow (post row at east edge parallel with the Cursus, alignment leading to barrow centre and 4 post-holes), and 1672 Dorchester 10 (4 concentric stake circles in Phase 2, formed as arcs).
[S MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 194 multiple varied disposal sites 165 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 121 of those 165 sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves just 44 sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposals are distributed very widely throughout the whole south area, with notable concentrations mirroring the general distribution concentrations noted earlier. They encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking just the major categories, 145 are under mounds [compared with 171 for all multiple varied disposals], 142 in pits [168], 27 in cairns [33], 15 in cists [15], and 77 were urned [86]. Twenty-seven of the disposals were laid on the ground [32]. It is a point of interest again that, as with the single unaccompanied disposals, the choice of container in the major categories is more or less in proportion to their numbers, and there is no particular discrimination.
The unaccompanied burials are found in monuments of both simple and complex or even grandiose types such as 406 Stonehenge.
Sixty-two of the unaccompanied disposals were clearly identified as male, and 47 as female.
Fifty-four of the 66 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, again approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.
Turning to the 150 accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (121 of these also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually, there are some features of distribution which are worth recording. The most prevalent category is the personal utensil (including Beakers), deposited on 82 of the 150 sites, and occurring widely, but with concentrations around Dorchester, Bokerley Dyke region, the Stonehenge to Silbury area, around Avebury and then with a scatter at the east fringes of Hampshire. Those disposals with items of personal decor (52) were also widely spread, but with more around Bokerley and around the Stonehenge-Woodhenge area. There seem to have been few occurrences around Dorchester or to the south east, east and north of the south area. Those with items connected with the individual's craft or work (47) appear widely spread, but with more instances around Dorchester, Bokerley, and Stonehenge (where they were very dense). Items of excellence occur on 40 sites with distributions as the last item. Token grave goods appear on 23 sites, quite widely scattered, with no particular concentrations, and with a large gap in the south east region. The animal associations are fewer (21 sites have animal parts), and mostly concentrate around Dorchester, Stonehenge and Avebury. Finally, items classified as objets trouvées are found with just 12 burials, largely around Stonehenge, with a few to the north and west and one in the very south.
The most common deposit, the personal utensil (on 82 sites), occurs (not necessarily with the same individual burial) with the other most frequently deposited goods as follows: 21 times with personal decor goods, 20 times with goods of excellence, 20 times with personal craft or trade objects, 13 times with animal parts, and 10 times with token deposits. Other higher combinations of goods on sites are of personal decor items with goods of excellence (17 times) and with personal craft or trade (19 times), of goods of personal craft with goods of excellence (15), of personal utensils with personal craft and goods of excellence together (8 times), and of personal utensils with personal decor goods and goods of excellence (9 times). There are three instances where personal utensils are deposited on the same site with goods of personal decor, personal craft and excellence. Otherwise combinations are infrequent.
The 46 clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with these goods: more than three- dozen pointed and perforated bones, 3 flint or stone axe heads, 2 stone point sharpeners, whetstone, perforated boars' teeth and several broken cup-shaped flints, a stone axe, a circular stone with a bevelled edge, and about three-dozen arrow heads of bone (1 case), mixed Beaker/Rinyo-Clacton bowl (1), Beaker sherds (2), 3 barbed and tanged arrow heads and a polished stone bracer of dark slate (1), Beaker, perforated stone axe, flint arrow head, pig bones (1), plain urn-shaped vessel (1 with female below and 4 children), Beaker (1 child plus female below), Beaker (8 cases), Beaker bowl (1), bronze dagger, miniature accessory vessel and a finely decorated food vessel (1), flint knife and Beaker (1), Beaker and food vessel (1), Beaker, wristguard, bone belt ring or toggle, oxhide with head and hooves attached (the last outside the coffin) (1), Beaker and folded hide (1 with female below), Beaker, bronze awl lying across slip of antler, flint scraper, pointed roe deer antler and protective shoe, antler piece spatula, bos horncore (?penis sheath), large carbonised triangular wooden board (on chest), long-bladed wooden cleaver-like object, and small triangular piece of wood (behind skull) (1), Beaker, antler spatula, slate object, bronze awl, flint knife, flint flake, another slate object, flint strike-a-light, marcasite ball, and hide covering (1), jet cone, amber cone and amber and other beads (1), flint pebble (1), pygmy cup, metal awl, small horn pendant, 3 fossil encrinite beads, and part of a chalk bead (1 with a child), Beaker and copper dagger (1), Bucket urn sherd (1), ogival flat bronze dagger and a flint end scraper (1), bronze object (1), Beaker, flint spear head and a smooth stone rubber (1), perforated axe- hammer (1), small plain pot and a fine flat bronze dagger (1), pierced deer horn (1), cord rimmed sherds (1), handled ornamented food vessel (1), bronze dagger, leather sheath, bone belt hook (1), cat humerus (1), 107 discoidal beads, 16 amber beads, conical shale button covered with gold, incense cup (1 with female), cattle skull (1), a pair of gold basket-shaped earrings, another smaller pair of gold earrings, a sheet gold tubular bead, 55 flat shale beads, 2 flint flakes, one joining with a flint fragment from the south end of the grave, a flint strike-a-light with a fragment of marcasite nodule, an antler spatula and a number of flint flakes, Beaker, a tanged copper dagger, point upwards, its sheath surviving only as a soil cast (1), Beaker and two flint flakes (1), jet toggle and bronze awl (1), 6 barbed and tanged arrowheads, 4 fragmentary antler spatulae, a bone awl, and a nest of struck flakes (1), and cattle scapula, axis vertebrae, humerus (other cattle bones were in the grave fill), and a barbed and tanged arrow head (1).
The 29 female accompanied disposals are associated with: a Beaker and a bronze awl (1 case), shaped chalk ball, a large flint core, several flint flakes, sheep metacarpus and 19 sherds (1), plain urn-shaped vessel (1 with male above and 4 children), Beaker and peculiarly shaped broken natural flint (1), Beaker (1 plus male child above), Beaker and folded hide (1 with male above), Beaker (2), perforated fossil bead (1), necklace of lignite, amber, seashell beads, two wooden incised and decorated toggles (1), string of beads of faience, shale, chalk and periwinkle shell (1), rubbing stone and small bronze awl (1), small food vessel (1), great quantity of beads and small decorated bowl (1), small cylindrical bead (1 child), Beaker with vertically perforated lug (1 with a child), flat dagger, bronze awl, gold mounted amber disc, faience beads, amber beads and space plates, amber stud, beads of shale, and (?) calcite beads (1), Beaker and bronze awl (1), Beaker (1 plus headless child), inverted food vessel (1), stone bead and a bronze awl (1), faience bead, chalk bead and a bead fossil (1), bronze awl (1), Beaker and a copper awl (1), 107 discoidal beads, 16 amber beads, conical shale button covered with gold, incense cup (1 with male), bronze dagger (1), necklace of amber, jet and lignite beads (1), spherical amber beads and 2 cylindrical beads with gold plates on their bases (1), and a glass bead, and a small knobbed urn (1).
Considering the number of sites (194) in the group, the numbers of clearly identified males and females are high at 108 and 76 respectively, although they include 22 from 823 Kalis Corner urn cemetery which boosts the number. This account assumes that the sex identifications were positive, and not deductions from the grave goods themselves, with certain goods assumed to belong to males and others to females. The male grave goods tend towards the utilitarian (items for hunting or other forms of work, utensils), the occasionally symbolic and some (sometimes rich) decorative items. The female grave goods also contain the utilitarian, but the decorative items seem more in evidence, and there is the occasional symbolic item. Both sexes have Beakers as a frequent grave concomitant. The occasional burial is very well furnished with a variety of goods, but most have one or two simple items of everyday life. As has occurred before, the female burials are sometimes with a child or children, more so than the male burials.
Fifty-seven of the 66 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[S MVD] Elite burial rites?
This group bears much similarity to the same group in the south west area. It holds both simple and more elaborate deposits, uses a variety of monument types, and the evidence for ritual activity in many respects exceeds that for single disposals.. It provides further support for the view that neither monument nor disposal mode (whether cremation or inhumation, single or multiple phased disposal) may have particular connections with the rite of disposal, and the associated activity.
The multiple varied disposals have sites where both unaccompanied and accompanied disposals were placed (indeed well over half were such). Again there does not appear to be particularly elite treatment of the burials recorded as having goods of excellence, since most have other more modestly furnished deposits in the same monument (some secondary). It repeats previous comments to state that the accompanied burials on these multiple varied disposal sites have much the same characteristics as those belonging to the accompanied burials on the single disposal sites. The ritual activity of the former is, however, not as rich in the south area, and the monuments and methods are not quite of as great variety. Also in this area the grave goods of excellence at the multiple varied disposal sites include goods of higher excellence than the goods of excellence at the single disposal sites, using present-day criteria, which reverses the position in the south west area. But the point has been made before that an elite burial may be served in other ways, and that the co-burial of non-elite groups (using goods as the sole criterion) with elite groups on these multiple varied disposal sites still needs some explanation. To define elite burial practice from grave goods alone should perhaps be treated as simplistic until it can be shown otherwise.
On the evidence, there are many ways in which one disposal may differ from another: in grave goods, design and composition of the grave, structures erected for permanent or temporary use in or around the grave, positioning of the disposal, positioning of associated disposals, selection of human material for disposal, activity around the grave (pit digging, artefact breakage, scattering of material, processional activity, artefact burials and so forth), and deposition of ritual objects. There are some depositions where there are no 'goods of excellence', but where the site suggests that there is something going on that is special. Is it a mark of an elite, for example, for a primary burial to be deposited as at 620 Bulford 27? And how how is this to be compared with that at 810 Folly Field? Or 866 Chilbolton?
Each burial has clearly received very special treatment, but was it for a member of an elite?
[S MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 400 Avebury Henge (range 2690-1740bc excluding anomalies), 401 West Kennet Avenue (range [3830]-2310bc), 403 Durrington Walls (range 2634-1810bc), 406 Stonehenge (range 2600-1350bc), 408 Woodhenge (1867, 1805bc), 418 Amesbury 61 (range 1600- 1340bc), 419 Amesbury 72 (2120, 1660bc), 464 Bishops Cannings 81 (range 2630-1590bc), 465 Amesbury 51 (1788bc), 467 Amesbury 39 (1670bc), 470 Amesbury 71 (2010, 1640bc), 494 Winterbourne Stoke 44 (1810bc), 499 Collingbourne Kingston 8 (1540bc), 688 Flagstones House (range 2540-1610bc), 726 Maumbury Rings (2020, 1990bc), 732 Pamphill (range 2230-1630bc), 823 Kalis Corner (range 1950-1280bc), 827 Micheldever Wood R4 (range [4950]-[1150]bc), 866 Chilbolton (range 1830-1790bc), 953 Winterbourne Steepleton 51 (range 2130-1170bc), 981 Easton lane ([2960, 2740]bc), and 1672 Dorchester 10 (range 1914-1765bc).
[S] Sites without disposals
There are 17 sites with some features of interest but no recorded burials in the south area for this period. The monument types are not varied, comprising 16 round barrows of various types and a henge. They had features which appear on burial sites, and therefore are worthy of note:
Although the breadth of activity is not as great as that on sites with disposals, the characteristics of the examples recorded echo those on burial sites. Radiocarbon dates are recorded for: 84 Wilsford (S) 33a (1390bc), 445 Milton Lilbourne 2 (1640, 1470bc), 731 Mount Pleasant (range 2122-1324bc).
There is one other site which was a burial monument, but falls into the current category since the first burial activity on the site preceded the monument building by 400 years, and the secondary burial succeeded the ritual activity described by a similarly lengthy timespan - 1701 Buckskin II Barrow.
Cremation and inhumation
Both methods are widely spread. Cremation only sites seem to occur in greater clusters in the Oxford- Newbury oval, on the South Downs, in north Buckinghamshire, and in inland Kent, with a thin line of sites following the Thames Valley. Inhumation only sites cluster in the north of the Oxford-Newbury oval, on the South Downs, in north Buckinghamshire, and on the Kent coast. There is a similar thin line following the Thames Valley. Sites with both types are few in the discernible foci around Oxford- Abingdon, north Buckinghamshire, the South Downs, and east Kent and there seems to no pattern visible in the Thames Valley.
In respect of the disposal process, there is greater comparability with the south west area than with the south, and cremation only sites are overall the most numerous at 111, against 88 for inhumation only and 30 sites with both methods on them. However, the different types of disposal sites reflect different proportions of use. The single disposal sites divide markedly between those using only cremation (70) and those using only inhumation (55), with no sites using both methods. The multiple similar sites have a similar clear division (12:13:2). However, the multiple varied disposal sites diverge from this pattern and have a much more even sharing of types with 29 sites holding only cremations, followed by sites holding both cremations and inhumations at 28 and inhumation only sites at 20.
Ritual activity occurs in higher incidence on the multiple varied disposal site as it did in the south and south west areas. At 31 instances on 77 sites, it is two to three times as frequent as occurrence on single disposal sites (20 occurrences on 125 sites), and on multiple similar sites (4:25).
[SE SD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 125 single disposal sites are distributed among the categories of mortuary enclosure, round barrows, pits or flat graves, ring ditches, ditched enclosures, and a river bed. The largest group comprised the round barrows of various design (48), followed by ring ditches (38). In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (8), mound (55), pit (104), cairn (2), cist (5), coffin (3), plank (2), platform or paving (6), pyre (7), urn (30), bag (3), shaft (1), mortuary house (2), binding (1), wrapping (1), stone arrangements (3) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4001].
The largest group, comprising the 104 pits, is very widespread with the strongest concentration in the northern part of the Oxford-Newbury oval. The whole length of the South Downs is covered also. Sites with mounds (55) are also widely but more thinly spread, but north Buckinghamshire is poorly represented, as is the Thames Valley line. The South Downs and the region south of Oxford appear to have particular concentrations. Sites with urns (30) appear on the South Downs and in the northern part of the Oxford-Newbury oval, with a few sites in north Buckinghamshire.
The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is that for the single disposal there appears, as in the south area, to be no district with exclusive use of a major type. The container variety is shrinking to a few main types, as it did in the south area.
[SE SD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was, as in the south west area, apparently very dominant in single disposals, 124 of the 125 sites using it, one using a multiple phase rite only, and two sites exhibiting both phase rites. There were 20 sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, with only two of them holding both single and multiple phase rite burials.
The 20 sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur on the South Downs (a handful), and in the northern part of the Oxford-Newbury oval, but otherwise are scattered. There are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow, particularly where there are deposits of animal bone or domestic refuse. The evidence for ritual activity at single disposal sites in the south east area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is not wide. There is little evident bone manipulation, and for the instances of inhumation (55 sites have it), the occurrence is low. What survives is similar to instances met before. The incidence of deposits of animal bone and of domestic refuse is also not high, but when it does occur is of the same type as in the Earlier Neolithic. The use of small pits for depositing lithic material, other special items or redeposited earth is present but (as was the case with the south area) it is moderate compared with similar sites in the south west area. Considering the higher frequency of cremated disposals, the instances of the use of fire are not numerous.
[SE SD] Disposal process
Of the 125 sites, 70 were cremation only sites, 55 inhumation only and none had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at 124 sites. Three sites have a multiple phase rite, implied by the state of the body before final deposition. At 1052 Barrow Hills Field F206 the burial comprised a couple of shaft bones, vertebrae and a skull fragment. 1074 Battersea provided a skull from the River Thames (possible example?). At 1078 Pyecombe the environmental evidence suggests a considerable interval between the placing of the body in the grave, the grave filling, and the erection of the mound.
[SE SD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 4 Site 6 Linch Hill Corner, 853 Childrey, 928 Five Knolls Ring Ditch 3, 936 Milton Keynes Ring Ditch MK23, 960 Hodcott Barrow 'a', 980 Southern Enclosure North Stoke, 1025 Scabbs Field (possibly), 1089 Barrow 1 Friday's Church, 1160 Glynde Hill Barrow, and 1165 Heath Barn.
[SE SD] Mortuary and other internal structures
At 873 Dorchester-on-Thames there was a four-post structure north of the cremation burial. At 980 Southern Enclosure North Stoke there was a trapezoidal mortuary enclosure. At 1123 Deerleap Wood there was a possible D-shaped mortuary house of ironstone blocks constructed to a domed profile.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines. These occur at: 894 Minster 8 (6 well-cut post-holes enclosed by the ditch), 907 Lord of the Manor Site IID (a five- post setting around the chalk platform, and 4 others), 960 Hodcott Barrow 'a' (2 stake circles concentric with the burial pit), 968 Stanmore Farm (7-stake holes in a circle at the barrow centre), 977 Barrow Hills Field 14 (stake-holes at inner and outer edge of the outer ring ditch), 1011 Stanton Harcourt Barrow (pyre support stake holes), 1021 Clifton Hampden (7 post-holes elliptically disposed around the burial), and 1078 Pyecombe (30 stake-holes on south and south west side of the ditch, and N-S line of stake-holes at east outside of the ditch).
A (?)marker post was 0.6m to the east of the grave at 1119 Chanctonbury.
[SE SD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 125 single disposal sites, rather less than half (56) have no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied single disposals are distributed across the whole south east area, and encompass three main disposal container types, with the others sparsely represented. Taking just the major categories for all single disposals, 24 are under mounds (compared with 55 for all single disposals), 47 in pits (104), 4 laid on open ground (8), 3 on pyre sites (7) and 18 were urned (30). It is again a point of interest that for these single unaccompanied burials, as for those in the south and south west areas, the choice of container is more or less in proportion, but just as in the south area, urns are used more and mounds less. All were placed in simple monuments or settings.
Three of these disposals were clearly identified as male, and eight as female.
Nine of the 20 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, once again approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.
Turning to the 69 accompanied single disposals, and taking the grave good types individually, these are the main features of distribution. Disposals with personal utensils (including Beakers) form the largest group and total 39, occurring in three main areas, the South Downs, the Oxford-Newbury oval and thinly on the north east Kent coast. Those disposals with items of personal decor (13) fall mostly in the Oxford-Newbury oval and on the South Downs, but with none in the north Buckinghamshire- Bedfordshire region. Those with items connected with the individual's craft or work (22) appear in the Oxford-Newbury oval with a few on the South Downs but scant representation elsewhere. Items of excellence also occur on 22 sites, and are found in a similar distribution to the personal craft items. Token items are found with 2 single disposals. Animal associations are scant (only 7 sites have animal parts [5] or whole animals [2]). Only two sites occur with domestic refuse accompanying the disposal itself.
The 18 clearly identified male disposals are associated with: 2 perforated hammer heads (one stone, one antler), incense cup, bronze knife (1 case), fine Bell Beaker, tanged copper knife, small riveted bronze knife, greenstone wristguard (1), flint plano-convex knife, potsherd (1), bronze dagger in a wooden case, bronze awl (burnt), organic substance (1), Beaker, bronze awl, flake and a flint knife (1), bronze awl, two objects of decorated gold foil crushed and stained by fire (1), thin bronze tanged knife-dagger with horn handle (funerary piece as so fragile?), leather sheath (1), wooden handled bronze awl, handle-less bronze dagger in elm bark and woven cloth wrapping (1), miniature food vessel (1), pygmy cup, flint fabricator, shale hone, bronze dagger and sharpening tool in a wood and leather sheath, 3 beads (amber, jet and fossil sponge), a horn object, bone ?pin head (1), Beaker (2), ?Wessex II bronze awl and bone handle,?miniature collared urn or pygmy cup (1), flint end scraper, bone leather-working tool, bone spatula, 10 waste flint flakes with a bronze awl resting on one, 5 fine barbed and tanged arrow heads (contents of a quiver?), lump of iron pyrites, and one broken barbed and tanged arrow head rested below the spine (cause of death) (1), fine Beaker, winged head bone pin, miniature tanged copper dagger, 2 barbed and tanged arrow heads, 2 flint blades and an antler point (1), Beaker, used stone wristguard, bone pommel of decayed bronze dagger (1), fine Beaker, tanged and barbed arrow head with diverging barbs, heap of snail shells before mouth (1), and 2 large cinerary urns (it was an inhumation), one holding a blue faience pendant, an umbo of jet with a circular groove around the margin, amber beads and some segmented beads (1).
The 11 identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: pig canine and incisor (1 possibly with a foetus or newly born baby), Bos longifrons bones (1), small bronze leaf-shaped razor or knife, a second similar implement, small biconical lugged vessel (1), flint flake (1), Beaker (1, possibly 2), Beaker and pig bones (1), fragment of carbonised wood and pea-sized sherd by face, large flint, ogival Wessex type bronze dagger (1), 3 bronze pins (1), Beaker, bronze and lignite beads around neck (1), and a bronze knife dagger, bronze pin, earthen cup with eyebrow pattern, necklace of shale disc beads (1).
The grave good deposits show the males with more generously furnished deposits, a higher proportion of more fine objects, and more items of trade, occupation or craft than the females. On the other hand there is no special bias towards the females having items of decor, with which male burials are equally well provided. Beakers (including some very fine examples) are well in evidence (22 sites have them), and they cluster in three defined areas, the South Downs, the Oxford-Abingdon area and, to a lesser degree, on the north east coast of Kent. In the south area, Beakers appear on 27 sites and are found almost solely in an area 10km either side of the Dorchester-Windmill Hill axis. In the south west area they appear on 18 sites but with no clear foci as in the other two areas, and are very broadly and thinly scattered in the area north east of a line drawn from south east Wales to Mendip to the North Cotswolds. The general distribution of Beakers in this period in association with burials replicates this pattern, with the Avebury-Windmill Hill, Stonehenge and Oxford-Abingdon areas seeming to have very dense concentrations. Perhaps this phenomenon is worth some further study, alongside the occurrence of the more common goods such as the dagger, the awl, the pin, beads, axes, arrow heads, whetstones, wristguards, pygmy vessels and other miniature items.
[SE SD] Combinations of grave goods
In a more general analysis, and taking the more frequent grave good types in turn, the most frequent type is the personal utensil which occurs 39 times, 11 times with personal craft goods and 10 times with goods of excellence. On five of those occasions the three types are in combination. Personal utensils and personal decor goods occur together five times. Grave goods of excellence appear on 22 sites, and apart from combinations just mentioned, occur with personal craft goods 11 times and with personal decor goods 6 times. Other combinations are infrequent. Personal decor goods appear on 13 sites, 11 times with personal utensils, 5 times with personal craft goods, but rarely with other goods except where already mentioned. Token grave goods and animal grave goods occur rarely in any combination.
Eleven of the 20 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied single disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[SE SD] Elite burial rites?
There continues to be little evidence to suggest that monument type, container for burial, disposal mode, phased rite or ritual activity point to a particular elite burial rite. Compared to the south and south west areas, the south east area single accompanied disposals have an even smaller proportion of burials with goods of excellence (south east 22:125 sites, south 45:140 sites, south west 38:108 sites). This characteristic of goods of excellence still seems to be the main discriminator of elite burial rites, although there is now some evidence accumulating that the collections, the setting out of the goods and certain other associated events may be discriminators also, as the last group began to suggest. The following sites are possible cases: 875 Dorchester-on-Thames Site XII); 983 Barrow Hills Field 2, Radley; 1050 Barrow Hills Field F201/3; 1119 Chanctonbury.
These may each illustrate that the individual was chosen for special treatment, but the reasons for their selection may be different in each case, and the burial processes and associations were markedly different.
[SE SD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding single disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 894 Minster 8 (1680bc), 899 Otford i (2280bc), 913 Halling (2230bc), 936 Milton Keynes Ring Ditch MK23 (1280bc), 937 Warren Farm Ring Ditch MK13 (1500bc), 960 Hodcott Barrow 'a' (range 1540-1390bc), 963 Lambourn Barrow Stables (1410bc), 980 Southern Enclosure North Stoke (2722, 1424bc), 1067 The Hamel (1520bc), 1074 Battersea (1930bc), 1078 Pyecombe ([5570bc] sample problems), 1118 Hove (1239bc), and 1696 St Margaret's-at-Cliffe (1670bc).
[SE MSD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 27 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows, oval barrows, ring ditches, and graves or pits. Twelve were barrows of various design, and 9 were ring ditches. This is a considerable reduction in monument types, as with the same group previously in the other areas in this period. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (4), mound (14), pit (22), cairn (1), urn (10), shaft (1), wrapping (1) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4002].
For distribution, only the larger numbers in this analysis of container types are worth further examination although the whole group is small. The largest group, comprising the 22 pits, has clusters in east Kent, the South Downs, the Oxford-Abingdon region and north Buckinghamshire/Bedfordshire, but is sparsely represented elsewhere. Sites with mounds (14) are even more thinly but similarly distributed, except that there are none in north Buckinghamshire/Bedfordshire. Sites with urns (10) occur very thinly scattered over the whole south east area. Other containers are of very low incidence (range 0-1, except for 4 open ground sites).
[SE MSD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was once again as in the s and south west areas apparently very dominant in multiple similar disposals, all of the 27 sites using it, with three also using a multiple phase rite.
There were four sites in the group with evidence for ritual activity, although several others provide features of interest. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple similar disposal sites in the south east area includes:
The variety of ritual activity is very reduced in this group, just as it was in the same groups in the south and south west areas. However the evidence in the south east area is so slight, even allowing for the small size of the group, as to be possibly significant.
[SE MSD] Disposal process
Of the 27 sites, 12 were cremation only sites, 13 inhumation only and only 2 had both processes. Single phase rites were carried out at all sites. There were three sites where there was a multiple phase rite clearly implied by the state of the body, and one other possible such site: 893 Ramsgate 5, 989 Barrow Hills Field 17, 1008 Between Linch Hill and Vicarage Field, and 1090 Barrow 2 Friday's Hill.
[SE MSD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at: 893 Ramsgate, 929 Five Knolls Ring Ditch 7, 988 Barrow Hills Field 5, 1090 Barrow 2 Friday's Hill, and 1156 Eastern Barrow Slonk Hill.
[SE MSD] Mortuary and other internal structures
There were two post-holes close to the north side of the burial pit at 1028 Ring Ditch B Cassington Mill, probably but not certainly associated with the grave. At 959 Lambourn Seven Barrows 19 the grave pit may have incorporated a post-hole grave marker.
[SE MSD] Grave goods associations and related features of disposal
Of the 27 multiple similar disposal sites, 21 have disposals with no accompanying grave goods. These unaccompanied multiple similar disposal sites are distributed widely, but one-third are in east Kent. Twelve disposals are under mounds [compared with 14 for all multiple similar disposals], 16 in pits [22], 4 laid on open ground [4], and 9 were urned [10]. Just as before in this period for this type, the choice of container in these major categories is more or less in proportion to the site numbers. They were all placed in simple monuments or settings.
Only one of these disposals was clearly identified as male, and one as female.
Three of the four sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals.
Turning to the 10 accompanied multiple similar disposal sites (three of the 27 sites in the group share accompanied and unaccompanied burials), and taking the grave good types individually, personal utensils, with 6 occurrences, are by far the most frequent, followed by personal craft items (3), animal parts (2), token goods (2), personal decor items (1) and goods of excellence (1). Combinations are infrequent.
The four clearly identified male accompanied disposals are associated with: ironstone (1 case), an elaborate jet and amber necklace comprising three lines of beads, a toiletry article like an awl (1 with a female below), Beaker, bone spatula, flint flake, toothless ox mandible (1), and a Beaker and stone wristguard (1). The toothless ox mandible may be accidental, or it could be a curated animal bone kept for depositional purposes as has occurred before. It was laid on the chest, which suggests the latter.
The four identifiable female accompanied disposals are associated with: an elaborate jet and amber necklace comprising three lines of beads, a toiletry article like an awl (1 with a male above), flint knife, sherd (1 and two children), Beaker with a miniature Beaker within, a roughly flaked fabricator, a core changing flake which had been used (1), and a Beaker (1).
In these grave goods there appears to be no very distinguishing features between the sexes. The goods are for the most part very simple and comprise personal utensils and tools.
Three of the four sites with evidence for ritual activity contained multiple similar accompanied disposals, higher than the proportion of such sites in this group, but on low numbers.
[SE MSD] Elite burial rites?
This group has a similar feel to the same one in the south area, where no special distinction could be found. The numbers are small, and the scope of ritual and grave goods are similarly narrow. The monuments include no striking examples. The extraordinarily elaborate necklace deposited with a double cremation stands out for its excellence: a jet and amber necklace with a bone finial which could be reconstructed as three lines of beads at the front narrowing to two at the side and then one line at the back of the neck. The jet beads were discs, some bevelled some not (94 recovered), ovate in three sizes (15), and a spacer for three lines of beads. There was one bone finial, and the amber beads comprised an ovate pendant, a finial button, a flat spacer and two sizes of ovate beads (9 complete, but many more probably crumbled away). There was also a toiletry article or awl, 6cm long, rounded at one end and pointed at the other (921 Radwell Ring Ditch I). Otherwise the collection of Beaker graves near Oxford are worthy of note.
There are no particular indications of elite burial rites in what is a small group.
[SE MSD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple similar disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 959 Lambourn Seven Barrows 19 (1490bc), and 1019 City Farm (1490bc).
[SE MVD] Disposal container types and distributions
The 77 sites are distributed among the categories of round barrows of various design, henges, post ring structures, ditched enclosures, isolated pits or flat graves, flat grave cemeteries, cremation cemeteries, settlement sites, and ring ditches. The majority of the sites were round barrows (35) and ring ditches (22), some of the latter very elaborate. In broad constructional terms, the sites employed these methods of containing the disposal, sometimes in combination: open ground (10), mound (37), pit (74), cairn (1), cist (7), coffin (6), platform or paving (6), pyre (4), urn (35), bag (1), shaft (1), mortuary house (4), binding (2), bundling (1), stone arrangements (3), urnfield (2) and no others [codes 4151-4173 in 1:1 combination with 4009].
The largest group, comprising the 74 pits, is once again a widely distributed type, occurring in the apparent four main site foci, north Buckinghamshire/Bedfordshire, the Oxford- Newbury oval, the South Downs and east Kent. Sites with mounds (37) have the same distribution in broad terms, but appear less in north Buckinghamshire/Bedfordshire. Urn burials (35) seem also to favour the four site foci and are very spread out in the remaining area.
In respect of sites with container types of lower frequency of occurrence, sites where the disposal was made on the ground surface (10) occur mostly in the Oxford region (6) and elsewhere are quite scattered. Sites with cists (7) are completely spread out. Sites with coffins as disposal containers (6) are only found in the north of the south east area, in the Oxford-Abingdon area and north Buckinghamshire/Bedfordshire.
For the most part there is only a handful of other examples of container, and only two types are worth some remark. Sites with mortuary houses (4) occur only in the northern part. Pyre sites (6) are widely spread.
The overall impression gained from this brief overview of the geographical distribution of the container types is that there is an even distribution of the three most numerous types among the four apparent population foci. The northern part of the south east area appears to have greater variety inasmuch as there are more types represented there, but it must be noted that there is a very much larger geographical area between the South Downs and the northern Surrey/Kent borders which has few sites on record for this period.
[SE MVD] Single and multiple phase rites, ritual activity and special deposits
In this period in the south east area, the evidence for the single and multiple phase rite shows that the single phase rite was dominant in multiple varied disposals, 75 of the 77 sites containing disposals using it, and 7 of the 77 also using a multiple phase rite. Five sites therefore shared both types of phased rite. There were 31 sites with evidence for ritual activity, on 30 occasions with single phase rite disposals, and on 7 occasions jointly with multiple phase rite disposals. This again continues to support the proposition advanced earlier that ritual activity has no strong associations necessarily with the type of disposal (single or multiple phase rite). The incidence of ritual activity is proportionally much higher in this site group than on the single and multiple similar disposal sites, which again is in accord with evidence for previous groups of this type.
The 31 sites formally coded as having ritual activity occur across the whole south east area, but there are recognisable groups in the four focal areas, and particularly in the Oxford-Newbury oval. The seven multiple phase rite sites occur with four in that area, and the other three to the north, east and south. As in the other groups, there are a number of other sites where some evidence suggests that ritual activity of other kinds took place, and references to these sites are included in the descriptions that follow. The evidence for ritual activity at multiple varied disposal sites in the south east area includes:
The variety of ritual activity for the multiple varied disposals is wide and strongly represented, as has been the case for this type in the other two areas. There appears to be less activity with fire as a component, and little evidence for scattering or spreading of material. The activity with bone handling and deposition is very strong, although at times it is harder to distinguish between multiple phase rite and more elaborate human bone handling activity. The prevalence of pits as a disposal container has brought with it strong representation of different types of pit deposit. There are also signs of votive depositions, though few directly connected with the burial itself.
[SE MVD] Disposal process
Of the 77 sites, 29 were cremation only sites, 20 inhumation only and 28 had both processes. This was a very different pattern of incidence from those of the other two groups, where evidence for both disposal process on one site was minimal in both cases. However, a similar tendency is seen in the same group in the south west area (48-3-22) and in the south area (52-34-108), except that the bias was even more strongly towards dual process sites in the south group.
Single phase rites occurred on 75 of the 77 sites in this group, and multiple phase rites seven times. At the seven formally coded multiple phase rite sites (and at some further examples possibly, where it is hard to distinguish clearly between handling of the remains and multiple phase rites), there was the following evidence for the possibility that the body had been exposed or otherwise received treatment before its final deposition: 906 Northdown, 920 Roxton Ring Ditch C, 938 Little Pond Ground Ring Ditch MK24, 944 Ramsgate 1, 967 Sutton Courtenay A, 995 Barrow Hills Field 15, 1022 North Stoke Disc Barrow, 1024 Tolley's Pit, 1048 Barrow Hills Field 12, 1051 Barrow Hills Field F919, 1053 Barrow Hills Field F950, 1055 Barrow Hills Field F4583/F942, 1113 Barrow VI West Heath, and 1166 Alfriston Race Course.
[SE MVD] Tokenism
Token deposits of the body (cremated or inhumed) occur at 14 sites: 888 Broadstairs and St Peter's 2, 891 Ramsgate 3, 906 Northdown, 914 Barton Ring Ditches, 924 Sewell Quarry, 967 Sutton Courtenay A, 978 Barrow Hills Field 16, 1010 Ring Ditch 4 (burial 2), 1022 North Stoke Disc Barrow, (?)1035 City Farm Site 3, 1084 Long Down, 1113 Barrow VI West Heath, 1152 Black Patch Barrow 3, and 1166 Alfriston Race Course.
[SE MVD] Mortuary and other internal structures
Mortuary structures occurred at 895 Wouldham 1, 915 Galley Hill, 920 Roxton Ring Ditch C, and at 1027 Cassington 5.
The other form of internal temporary structure of note is that using stake rings or lines: 916 Goldington Site 1, 917 Goldington Site 2, 1037 City Farm Site 4, 1110 Itford Hill barrow, and 1444 Gravelly Guy Barrow.
There were possible grave marker posts at: 886 Halling 1, 917 Goldington Site 2 (Phase 2), 1110 Itford Hill Barrow, and at 1113 Barrow VI West Heath.
At 1023 Foxley Farm Beaker Cemetery there were four massive post-holes in the vicinity, possibly burial ground markers.
[SE MVD] Grave goods associations and other related features of disposal
Of the 77 multiple varied disposal sites, 66 contain burials with no accompanying grave goods, although 47 of those 66 sites also have accompanied burials. This leaves just 11 sites with multiple varied disposals lacking any grave goods at all. These unaccompanied disposals are distributed generally across the south east area, among the usual foci with a scattering between. They encompass a wide range of disposal container types. Taking just the major categories, 34 are under mounds (compared with 37 for all multiple varied disposals), 65 in pits (74), 6 in cists (7), and 32 were on sites with urns (35). Nine of the disposals were laid on the ground (10). It is a point of interest again that, as with the single unaccompanied disposals, the choice of container in the major categories is more or less in proportion to their numbers, and there is no particular discrimination.
The unaccompanied burials are found in monuments of both simple and complex type.
Thirty-nine of the unaccompanied disposals were clearly identified as male, and 28 as female.
Twenty-seven of the 31 sites with evidence for ritual activity contain unaccompanied disposals, again approximately in proportion to the total representation of such disposals.
Turning to the 58 accompanied disposal sites among the total multiple varied disposal sites (47 of these 58 also have unaccompanied burials on them), and taking the grave good types individually, there are some features of distribution which are worth recording. The most prevalent category is the personal utensil (including Beakers), deposited on 27 of the 58 sites, and occurring widely, but concentrated in the Oxford-Newbury oval. Those with items connected with the individual's craft or work (21) appear clustered in the Oxford-Newbury oval with four in the north Buckinghamshire/Bedfordshire area, and two to the east but none to the south. Items of excellence occur on 14 sites in the Oxford-Newbury oval, and 4 to the east and south. Token grave goods appear on 18 sites, a far higher occurrence proportionally than in the other areas, and mostly in the Oxford-Newbury oval but with representations elsewhere. Those disposals with items of personal decor (12) occur around Oxford, with a few in north Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and east Kent, but none to the south. The animal associations are more frequent (16 sites have animal parts), and have a similar distribution.
The most common deposit, the personal utensil (27 sites with instances), occurs on sites with the other most frequently deposited goods as follows: 5 times with personal decor goods, 8 times with goods of excellence, 13 times with personal craft or trade objects, 7 times with animal parts, and 3 times with token deposits. Otherwise combinations are infrequent.
The 20 clearly identified accompanied male disposals are associated with: Beaker, 7 tanged and barbed arrow heads at base of pelvis, bone ring pendant shaped like an hour glass (1 case), natural flint shaped like small dagger on pelvis (1), broken flint flakes (1), Beaker, bone toggle on sternum, stone bracer, spiral headed bronze pin (1), pair of sheet gold basket earrings with incised decoration, Beaker, 3 small barbed and tanged arrow heads (one broken, one also in mound) (1), Beaker (pierced with 5 holes in base), nest of flint flakes, glutinous material (1), freshly made flint dagger with glutinous material, nodule of iron pyrites, strike-a-light flint (1), Beaker, shale button with V perforation, flint punch, end scraper, waste flake with cortex, 6 fine flint arrow heads (3 damaged) with glutinous material, used flint flake, square-ended flint knife flaked for hafting (1), arrow head (1), Beaker sherd (2, 1 with female below), Beaker (5), Beaker, bronze dagger (1), broken pig bones by feet (1), awl (1), and flints including worked flints (1).
The 14 female accompanied disposals are associated with: jet slider, used flint knife (1 case), bronze dagger (1 and a child), small pile of flint nodules over the pelvis (1), bone cylinder bead, bronze awl, flint flakes from one nodule, pig tusk fragments (1), pig and sheep bone (1), Beaker, double pointed bronze or copper awl, a used flint flake on the pelvis (1), Beaker, conical shale button, three flint implements, double pointed bronze awl (1), Beaker (1), Beaker sherd (1 with male above), bead, small flint flakes (1 and child), Beaker, bronze awl (2), burnt animal bones, bone spacer, amber bead, jet or lignite miniature axe pendant, ring pendant (1), and finally, cattle bones, ring headed bone pin (1).
The male and female accompaniments follow much the same tendencies as before. There seems to be a little more inclination to place animal bone with the female burials, and the occasional positioning of an item on or by the pelvis is more noticeable here. The use of the pelvis in bone placement has been noted before, and this occurrence underlines that there was a significance attached to that part of the skeleton (as was also the case with the cranium and mandible in bone placement in particular).
Twenty-three of the 31 sites with evidence for ritual activity contained accompanied disposals, approximately in proportion to the number of such sites in this group.
[SE MVD] Elite burial rites?
This group is interesting in the same way as that for the south area, for the way in which it seems to combine elements of both the first two. It has both simple and more elaborate deposits, uses a variety of monument types, and the evidence for ritual activity in many respects exceeds that for the single disposal group. It again may provide further support for the view that neither monument nor disposal mode (whether cremation or inhumation, single or multiple phased disposal) may have particular connections with the rite of disposal, and the associated activity.
The multiple varied disposals have sites where both unaccompanied and accompanied disposals were placed (indeed over half were such, 47 out of 77). There does not appear to be particularly elite treatment of the burials recorded as having goods of excellence, since they may have other more modestly furnished deposits in the same monument (some secondary). Indeed, while there are goods of excellence there are not the gold-rich disposals to anything like the extent in the south area. Just as in the south area, the accompanied burials on these multiple varied disposal sites have much the same characteristics as those belonging to the accompanied burials on the single disposal sites. The ritual activity of the former is as rich or richer, the monuments and methods are of as great variety. There is probably a greater degree of similarity in the other aspects of burial than has appeared in the previous comparisons of such groups.
There are several sites where construction or rites were particularly elaborate or had special features (1166 Alfriston Race Course, the Barrow Hills Field group at Radley (for example 986, 995), 944 Ramsgate 1, and the Beaker cemeteries at 1023 Foxley Farm and 1024 Tolley's Pit). If attention to the detail of ritual and burial activity marks out an elite, then there is evidence for such, but rarely is it associated with the present-day concept of prestige items. It is of interest that the identifiable male and female burials in all the areas for this period have a noticeable proportion of Beakers buried with them.
But what might elite really be? Is it possible that it is not simply marking a wealthy person, but equally a remarkable hunter, a good fighter, a particularly skilled craftsperson, an inventor, an architect, a doctor, a spiritual or temporal leader, a person of general influence and wisdom, and even someone noted for one particular achievement like a settlement founder? These other types of special skills or sources of distinction might be found worth marking in disposal for their vital practical value to the community. Speaking purely intuitively, there seem to be disposals where, although the accompanying goods are not particularly remarkable, there is a character in the disposition which implies that a person of note (but maybe not wealth) is being buried. Sometimes the elite nature is clear by the goods carefully laid out, sometimes it is more obscure, with goods of a particularly unusual and less obviously explicable nature. There seems to be evidence for this other sense of elite burials, if the definition can be extended, but it is impossible to prove conclusively that this is so.
Is it also possible to discern instances where the elite nature may be of a pejorative type? It is easy to assume that people of whom the society disapproved might, as outcasts, have been accorded no formal burial, no trace of which survives. That may have been the case, but is by the nature of the proposition unprovable. Yet there are burials where mutilation of the body before or after death has taken place, as there are instances of trephination (especially in the south area), and instances where the body seems to have been buried very deeply in shafts or been weighted down especially heavily with flint or stone. These instances are sufficiently infrequent (like burials with gold) to be particularly noticeable, and may add to the classes of elitism which some burials were expressing. It is very hard to attach such disposals unequivocally to an implied mode of thought. In some of them it may indeed be that considerations are at work not oriented to the individual, but focusing more generally on an otherworld or an after-life. But one might reasonably ask, if so, then why are there not more examples surviving? On the other hand, it is apparent from the evidence to date over 3500-14/1300bc (nearly 2700 calendar years), that the societies of all three areas used a very wide range of material and activity to express their intentions through the disposal process.
[SE MVD] Radiocarbon dates
Sites holding multiple varied disposals for this period in the south east area in the Gazetteer, and with recorded radiocarbon dates include: 871 Dorchester-on-Thames (2280bc), 874 Dorchester-on-Thames (range 2170-1600bc), 877 Dorchester-on-Thames (1740bc), 919 Roxton Ring Ditch B (1670bc), 920 Roxton Ring Ditch C (range 1850-1670bc), 939 Ravenstone Ring Ditch (1810bc), 954 Field Farm Ring Ditch 417 (range 1700-[940]bc), 958 Shortheath Lane (1390bc), 962 Park Farm (range [2920- 2830]bc), 1035 City Farm Site 3 (1490bc), 1037 City Farm Site 4 (1510bc), 1113 Barrow VI West Heath (range 2290-1360bc), and 1152 Black Patch Barrow 3 (1880bc).
The site at 962 Park Farm may be a remnant cairn derived from arable conversion on the chalkland.
[SE] Sites without disposals
There are 9 sites with some features of interest but no recorded burials in the south east area for this period. The monument types are not varied, comprising 5 oval or round barrows, 2 ring ditches, a double ditched enclosure and a flat grave. They had features which appear on burial sites, and therefore are worthy of note:
The characteristics of the few examples recorded resemble some of those on burial sites, except that there is one site which seems to have been very out of the ordinary; that at 1167 Alfriston Race Course North.
Radiocarbon dates are recorded for: 103 Alfriston A (2360, 1240bc), 106 North Marden (1640, 1600bc), 994 Heatherwood Hospital (1480bc), and 1000 Ring Ditch C Heron's House ([1110, 1090bc]).
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